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Argumentative Paper about Law essay help from professional writers: essay help from professional writers

In Crito Socrates (or, Plato through Socrates) makes the argument that the laws of a state can expect – demand, even – obedience in part because they are directly related to making you into the person you are. This argument, one of the origins of social contract theory, seems even stronger now than in Ancient Greece. The laws are indeed much like another set of parents for many of us: the state sanctions marriage and children (or at least made having a child a tax-friendly decision), there are laws that likely ensured your schooling was up to a reasonable standard, the state endeavored to provide a more or less safe environment for you to grow up in (with police, military, pollution limits, state protections against abuse and neglect, etc.), they even have supported the general culture that nurtured and enriched you (supporting the arts, education, and commerce that have been crucial to the formation of your identity and worldview). In short, for most of us, and whether we like it or not, the state (and its laws) are indeed a large part of what made us the people we are today.

But, does Socrates’s claim that you owe the state obedience follow from the idea that it supported your becoming the person you are? Or, does your obedience depend on some other factors?

If you think the state is owed obedience on these grounds, are there any limits to this obedience? Or, must one always acknowledge their personal debt to the state by following the laws? Explain. If not, where does Socrates’s argument fall short? What, in particular, allows us (or would allow us) to disobey laws, even if we have been helped and supported by them in general?

You will be graded both on content and format. You need to demonstrate thoughtful and careful engagement with our course material and at least one outside source. Specify the pages of the texts you referred to for your arguments within your text and provide a bibliography below your text (any citation style is fine, but you will be graded on your ability to adhere to it correctly;  Structure your thinking and your lines of argumentation into sections and paragraphs, ideally with an introduction and conclusion. Section headers may be helpful. Your paper should be typed, 3-4 pages long (double spaced, size 12 font, 1 inch margins), and uploaded to Canvas in Word or PDF format (all word processing programs allow you to save in one of these file types). Add page numbers, a title and your name. Proofread your paper for proper grammar, spelling, etc. before submitting.

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The Multiple Streams Framework college admissions essay help

Forum Section: Theoretically Refining the Multiple Streams Framework

The Multiple Streams Framework and the problem broker

ÅSA KNAGGÅRD Department of Political Science, Lund University, Sweden

Abstract. John Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Framework (MSF) constitutes a powerful tool for understand- ing the policy process, and more specifically, agenda-setting, through three separate streams: problems, policies and politics. This article argues that the MSF would benefit from further development of the problem stream. It introduces a clearer conception of agency into the problem stream by suggesting the inclusion of the problem broker. The problem broker is a role in which actors frame conditions as public problems and work to make policy makers accept these frames. The problem broker makes use of knowl- edge, values and emotions in the framing of problems. The use of these three elements is seen as a prerequisite for successful problem brokering – that is, for establishing a frame in the policy sphere. Other important factors are: persistence, access to policy makers, credibility and willingness. Problem brokers also need to know who to talk to, how and when in order to make an impact. The context, in terms of, for example, audience and national mood, is also crucial. The inclusion of the problem broker into the MSF strengthens the analytical separation between streams. According to Kingdon, policies can be developed independently from problems.The MSF, therefore, enables a study of policy generation.The inclusion of the problem broker, in the same sense, makes it possible to investigate problem framing as a separate process and enables a study of actors that frame problems without making policy suggestions. The MSF is, in its current form, not able to capture what these actors do. The main argument of this article is that it is crucial to study these actors as problem framing affects the work of policy entrepreneurs and, thereby, agenda- setting and decision making.

Keywords: Multiple Streams Framework (MSF); problem broker; problem definition; framing

Introduction

The Multiple Streams Framework (MSF), as developed by John Kingdon (2003), consti- tutes a powerful tool to understand policy processes, especially agenda-setting. The MSF builds on the idea that the policy process consists of three parallel and mostly independent processes: a problem stream, a policy stream and a politics stream. This article argues that too little focus has been placed on the problem stream, by Kingdon and others, as compared to the policy stream.

Policy entrepreneurs, active in the policy stream, are the most important actors for understanding agenda-setting in the MSF.They develop policy alternatives and couples them with problems. The policy entrepreneur works to present a ready package of problems and solutions to policy makers at the right moment. If the policy entrepreneur is successful, the problem will be placed on the political agenda.If the package is rejected by policy makers,the policy entrepreneur might try to sell the same package at a later point or at a different venue, or try to couple the policy with a different problem.The policy entrepreneur is an important

450 European Journal of Political Research 54: 450–465, 2015 doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12097

© 2015 European Consortium for Political Research Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

actor, but is not the only actor to whom we need to pay attention. In studies using the MSF it is common that focus is placed on the policy and politics streams, whereas the problem stream is given much less attention.Due to this, the problem and policy streams often overlap in the sense that the policy entrepreneur is seen as defining the problem through matching it with certain policy alternatives (e.g., Zahariadis 2014: 30ff).This article argues that this hides the power present in defining public problems. Public problems are here seen as those understood as being in need of political action.

The study of problem definition has long been an important area in policy studies (e.g., Baumgartner & Jones 1993; Crow 2010; Rochefort & Cobb 1994; Schön & Rein 1994; Stone 1989; Wood & Doan 2003).The important lesson from this research, completely in line with Kingdon’s framework, is that problems do not just appear. Just as policy entrepreneurs try to place packages of problems and policies on the political agenda, so too does someone define problems and try to get attention focused on them. Problems can be defined in a number of different ways, which implies that they are always more or less ambiguous (cf. Baumgartner & Mahoney 2008; Zahariadis 2014). This also means that they can be rede- fined in order to make new constellations of problems and policies possible as well as create new coalitions of interests (e.g., Baumgartner & Jones 1993; Schattschneider 1960). In other words, the definition of problems creates the stage on which policy entrepreneurs act. It does not mean that problems necessarily come first, but rather that the definition of problems and the generation of policies are analytically separate processes. When these processes come together, problem definitions fundamentally affect which policies it is possible to push, which actors will be interested in the problem and which institutions will be involved in its management. When a preferred policy alternative can be coupled with several different problem definitions, a policy entrepreneur can choose which problem to use (cf. Boscarino 2009). If there is only one suitable problem definition, policy entrepre- neurs will have to adjust.

The argument here is that when employing the MSF we must pay better attention to what happens in the problem stream in order to understand agenda-setting. This article analytically develops what happens in the problem stream. It is done through the introduc- tion of the concept of the ‘problem broker’ into the MSF. A problem broker is here understood as a role in which actors frame conditions as public problems and work to make policy makers accept these frames. This article makes an argument for, and analytically develops, the role and tasks of the problem broker. Through this, the analytical separation of streams is strengthened as the idea of agency in the problem stream is more clearly developed. It further enables an analysis within the MSF of actors who define problems but do not couple them with policies.

The article starts with a discussion of the problem stream in the MSF. It then elaborates on the concepts of ‘problem broker’ and ‘framing’. The different elements in frames of knowledge, values and emotions are discussed as well as how we can understand success in terms of problem brokering. Finally, some empirical illustrations are presented.

In the problem stream

Before presenting the role of the problem broker we need to consider how the problem stream is understood in the MSF. Kingdon (2003: 17) was keenly interested in the role of

THE MULTIPLE STREAMS FRAMEWORK AND THE PROBLEM BROKER 451

© 2015 European Consortium for Political Research

problem definitions and asked: ‘[H]ow does a given condition get defined as a problem for which government action is an appropriate remedy?’ This perspective is congruent with that found, for example, in Baumgartner and Jones (1993). Thus, problems do not exist but have to be defined by someone. Before they become problems they are only conditions.The difference between a condition and a problem is that the latter is seen as something that we ought to do something about (Kingdon 2003: 109; cf. Baumgartner & Jones 1993; Wildavsky 1979). Two aspects are important here: (1) how this is done; and (2) who is doing it. According to Kingdon, ‘people define conditions as problems by comparing current con- ditions with their values concerning more ideal states of affairs, by comparing their own performance with that of other countries, or by putting the subject into one category rather than another’ (Kingdon 2003: 19; see also the discussion on pp. 110–113). To start this process, indicators, focusing events and feedback from enacted policies are crucial (Kingdon 2003: 90–100). Regarding the issue of who is doing the defining, Kingdon (2003: 115) points out that activists and policy entrepreneurs are highly important for bringing ‘problems to public and governmental attention’. However, his focus is not primarily on problem definition as such, or the people defining problems. Rather, he pays attention to people ‘in and around government’ and why they become interested in certain problems (Kingdon 2003: 90). He argues that the source of ideas is less important for explaining why certain problems are placed on the agenda than ‘the climate in government or the recep- tivity to ideas of a given type’ (Kingdon 2003: 72).

This leads Kingdon to emphasise the importance of coupling streams for agenda-setting. It is the package of problem and policy and the timing that explains why certain ideas get attention from policy makers.This article does not question this, but rather expands on what is already there. The argument developed here builds on the interdependence of streams. Leaving problem definition underdeveloped entails that coupling becomes the same act as defining problems. Thereby, the analytical separation between streams breaks down. The point is that by focusing only on policy entrepreneurs, we risk missing how policy entre- preneurs are enabled or limited by how problems are defined as well as how these defini- tions affect agenda-setting and policy making. By building on theories of problem definitions, framing and persuasion, the MSF will gain in clarity and applicability.

The problem broker

A problem broker is a role in which actors frame conditions as public problems and work to make policy makers accept these frames. Problem brokers thus define conditions as problems. One aspect is especially important in this definition: framing a condition as a public problem is done with the purpose of making policy makers accept it and, in the end, do something about it. Problem brokering is thereby a strategic act.A range of actors could play the role of problem broker, from those inside government to those on the outside. One advantage of seeing the problem broker as a role that can be enacted is that focus is placed on what actors do rather than on who these actors are.

In the academic literature, a number of concepts are used when trying to capture what the problem broker does. All these concepts have merits, but for different reasons work less well in the context of the MSF. ‘Epistemic communities’ (Haas 1992) and ‘advocacy

452 ÅSA KNAGGÅRD

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Grazing Reform Efforts free essay help online: free essay help online

Grazing Reform Efforts Shift to Judicial Venue

Impactsa Year Key Event (Events in bold indicate actions in a judicial venue)

= 2000 Oregon National Desert Association files suit against BLM for failing to “promote the highest use of the public lands” as required by Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 (ONDA 2005).

= 2001 Western Watersheds Project and Idaho Conservation League file suit against BLM for violations of NEPA and Federal Land Policy Management Act (Western Watersheds Project 2001).

= 2002 Forest Guardians file suit against BLM for violating the Clean Water Act by allowing grazing cattle to pollute water supplies (Property Rights Research 2002).

+ 2003 Voluntary Grazing Permit Buyout Act introduced in House—dies in committee (HR 3324).

− 2003 Three Judges rule that Forest Service is violating ESA by permitting grazing on Lincoln National Forest, which is habitat for the Mexican spotted owl (Forest Guardians 2003).

= 2004 Forest Guardians and others file suit against Forest Service alleging that all grazing practices across the Southwest are in violation of ESA (Forest Guardians 2004).

− 2005 District Court Judge B. Lynn Winmill rules that the BLM is violating the ESA by permitting grazing on 800,000 acres of BLM land in Nevada that is habitat for the sage grouse. Grazing on these lands is halted by court order and the BLM is ordered to prepare a comprehensive Environmental Impact Statement (Twin Falls Times- News 2005).

Source: Compiled by the author from media reports and court documents. a− Shifts balance in favor of environmentally-oriented subsystem challengers. + Shifts balance in favor of established resource extraction subsystem. = Compromise outcome or no clear advantage for either side. NEPA, National Environmental Policy Act; ESA, Endangered Species Act; BLM.

14 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

even most cases, the models have accurately explained how issues get on the agenda, whether through a successful problem redefinition and expansion of the conflict (Schattschneider mobilization) or as a result of an external focusing event that produces an “alarmed discovery” of the problem (Downsian mobilization). The theory has proven equally adept at explaining the real-world observations that over time, periods of incremental change are the norm but that when conditions are right we can see dramatic changes. Much of the empirical research in this vein has focused on identifying those conditions, perhaps assuming that periods of incrementalism were less interesting.

This research makes three relevant contributions to our understanding of policy subsystems. The first is that the absence of a punctuation does not necessarily indi- cate an absence of conflict. For all intents and purposes, the history of federal grazing policy shows an uninterrupted period of incremental adjustments to grazing fees since 1934, with no indication of subsystem challenges because all were unsuccess- ful. However, given the current trend in Congress to increase committee power by expanding jurisdiction into new areas, a period of uninterrupted incrementalism in a topic area may actually be a good indicator of the strength of a subsystem.

The second point is that the institutional advantages in the legislative arena— particularly the filibuster—allowed entrenched interests in rangelands policy to fend off challenges even after the conflict had expanded to include a majority in the House, a President leading the charge, and a supportive bureaucracy. Clearly, these advantages can be overcome at some point by sufficient pressure and attention from the electorate, but these cases suggest that strong subsystems can resist even periods of positive feedback for a time.

The third point is that too little attention has been paid in the literature to the impacts of judicial actors. While some research has looked at Supreme Court deci- sions and the notion of venue shopping, in these cases decisions by lesser courts played a pivotal role. In fact, litigation is becoming the preferred strategy for chal- lenging subsystems, and groups are becoming ever more creative at finding statu- tory leverage to get their case on the docket.

A good deal of progress has been made in recent years toward understanding how issues move onto and off of the public agenda, but more research is needed to unpack the role of judicial actors at different levels and across multiple policy domains. A proper treatment of the impact of judicial actors on policy subsystems is beyond the scope of this article, but it seems clear that the message is broader than simply “courts matter.” To date, the dominant theories of agenda setting and subsystem dynamics are largely based on the political notions of conflict expansion and mobilization, and the comparison of these cases suggests this may be inade- quate to handle the complexities of the current policy environment.

The Center for American Politics and Public Policy at the University of Wash- ington is in the process of adding Supreme Court data to the Agendas Project, data that may prove invaluable in future studies of subsystem challenges via the judici- ary. Additional data on lawsuits filed and lower court decisions coded by major topic however, would be very useful for gauging attention levels across the judicial venue, though the sheer scope of such an effort may be prohibitive. Barring this

Wood: The Dynamics of Incrementalism: Subsystems, Politics, and Public Lands 15

type of large-scale data collection effort however, the impact of actions in this increasingly important venue will be visible only through qualitative comparisons such as these.

Robert S. Wood is an assistant professor of Political Science and Public Adminis- tration at the University of North Dakota. His research includes work on public policy, bureaucratic behavior, state and local regulation, and public administration reform. His work has recently appeared in the Journal of Public Administration Theory and Research and State and Local Government Review. He may be contacted at [email protected].

Notes

1. 1947–1993 data were collected by Nelson; 1993–1998 data were collected by Stewart and Woon. These authors are cited individually in the references. The data are available together at http:// web.mit.edu/17.251/www/data_page.html. 1998–2005 data were taken directly from House and Senate websites and compiled.

2. A second component of jurisdictional clarity that is not measured here is the percentage of a com- mittee’s time that is devoted to a single issue. Baumgartner, Jones and MacLeod (2000) refer to this dimension as the span of the committee.

3. Public Lands from 1947–1950, Interior and Insular Affairs from 1950–1977, and Energy and Natural Resources from 1977 to present.

4. Public Lands from 1947–1951, Interior and Insular Affairs from 1951–1992, Natural Resources from 1993–1994, and Resources from 1994 to present.

5. This was indicated by the House approval of substantial grazing fee increases in the BLM Reautho- rization Bill (1991) and the Interior Appropriations Bill (1992). Both measures were subsequently defeated in the Senate.

6. Private lands in the East, which are much more productive per acre, account for 81 percent of all live- stock forage. Another 17 percent comes from private lands in the West, and the remaining 2 percent from public lands (Layzer 2002, 137).

References

Baumgartner, Frank R., and Bryan D. Jones. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

———. 2002. Policy Dynamics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Baumgartner, Frank R., Bryan D. Jones, and Michael C. MacLeod. 2000. “The Evolution of Legislative Resolutions.” Journal of Politics 62: 321–49.

Cobb, Roger, and Charles Elder. 1971. “The Politics of Agenda Building.” Journal of Politics 33 (4): 892–15.

Dana, Samuel T., and Sally K. Fairfax. 1980. Forest and Range Policy. 2nd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Easton, David 1957. “An Approach to the Analysis of Political Systems.” World Politics 9: 383–400.

Feeley, T. Jens. 2002. “The Multiple Goals of Science and Technology Policy.” In Policy Dynamics, ed. F. R. Baumgartner, and B. D. Jones. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp. 125–154.

Fenno, Richard F. Jr. 1973. Congressmen in Committees. Boston: Little, Brown.

Forest Guardians. 2003. “Judge Rules Forest Service Violated Endangered Species Protections by Autho- rizing Grazing in Lincoln National Forest.” April 18. http://www.Fguardians.Org/library/ paper.asp?nMode=l&nlibraryID=157 Accessed March 25, 2005.

http://
http://www.Fguardians.Org/library/

16 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

———. 2004. “Lawsuit Alleges National Forest Livestock Grazing Violates ESA.” March 15. http://www.Fguardians.Org/library/paper.asp?nMode=1&nlibraryID=20. Accessed March 25, 2005.

Griffith, Ernest S. 1939. The Impasse of Democracy. New York: Harrison-Hilton Books.

King, David C. 1997. Turf Wars: How Congressional Committees Claim Jurisdiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kingdon, John W. 1995. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. 2nd edn, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.

Lasswell, Harold D. 1956. The Decision Process. College Park: University of Maryland Press.

———. 1971. A Pre-View of Policy Sciences. New York: American Elsevier.

Layzer, Judith. 2002. The Environmental Case: Translating Values into Policy. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

Nelson, Garrison. 2005. Committees in the U.S. Congress 1947–1992 “Garrison Nelson, 2005. http://web.mit.edu/17.251/www/data_page.html. Accessed March 20, 2005.

ONDA 2005. Oregon Natural Desert Association. Taylor Grazing Act Index. http://www.onda.org/ projects/taylorgrazingact/index.html. Accessed October 27, 2005.

Property Rights Research 2002. In New Lawsuit, Environmentalists Use Water Act to Fight Grazing on Federal Lands.” November 27, 2002. http://www.propertyrightsresearch.org. Accessed March 25, 2005.

Rundle, S. L. 2004. “The Once and Future Federal Grazing Lands.” William and Mary Law Review 45 (4): 1803–36.

Sabatier, Paul A., and Hank Jenkins-Smith. 1993. Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder: Westview Press.

Schattschneider, E. E. 1960. “The Semisovereign People.” New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.

Stewart, Charles, III, and Jonathan Woon. 2005. Congressional Committee Assignments, 103rd to 105th Con- gresses, 1993–1998. Charles Stewart, 2005. http//web.mit.edu/17.251/www/data_page.html. Accessed March 20, 2005.

Twin Falls Times-News. 2005. “Judge Halts Grazing on 800,000 Acres Near Jarbidge”. http:// magicvalley.com/articles/2005/08/02/news_topstory/news_topstory./.txt. Accessed October 27, 2005.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Agriculture. 1972. Establish a Commission to Investigate Clearcutting of Timber on Public Lands. (72-H161–24; Date: June 20, 1972). Abstract available from LexisNexis Congressional (Online Service). Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. 1995. Federal Forest Management, Part 1. (95-S311–56; Date March 8, April 5, 26, June 8, 1995). Text available from LexisNexis Con- gressional (Online service). Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. 1971a. “Clear-Cutting” Practices on National Timberlands, Part 1. (71-S441–1). April 5 & 6, 1971. Abstract available from LexisNexis Congressional (Online Service). Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service.

———. 1971b. “Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. “Clear-Cutting” Practices on National Timber- lands, Part 2. (71-S441–2; April 7, 1971). Abstract available from LexisNexis Congressional (Online Service). Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service.

———. 1971c. “Clear-Cutting” Practices on National Timberlands, Part 3. (71-S441–3; May 7 & June 29, 1971). Abstract available from LexisNexis Congressional (Online Service). Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service.

Western Watersheds Project. 2001. “BLM Allowing Harmful Grazing Practices to Continue on Pleas- antview Allotment.” October 17, 2001. http://www.westernwatersheds.org/legal/legal.html. Accessed October 27, 2005.

Wilkerson, Charles F. 1992. Crossing the Next Meridian: Land, Water, and the Future of the American West. Washington DC: Island Press.

http://www.Fguardians.Org/library/paper.asp?nMode=1&nlibraryID=20
http://web.mit.edu/17.251/www/data_page.html
http://www.onda.org/
http://www.propertyrightsresearch.org
http://
http://www.westernwatersheds.org/legal/legal.html

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Rangelands Management Policy essay help 123

Rangelands Management Policy—Key Events

Impactsa Year Key Events (Events in bold reflect actions in a judicial venue)

= 1934 Taylor Grazing Act—establishes structure and fee structure for grazing of livestock on public lands.

+ 1946 Bureau of Land Management created by the Truman administration. + 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act—authorizing legislation for BLM. − 1976 Carter authorizes a study by Interior and Agriculture on raising grazing fees. + 1978 Public Rangelands Improvement Act (PRIA)—heavily favors ranching interests. + 1980 Idaho Senator McClure engineers a mandated two-year phase in for stock

reduction changes greater than 10%. + 1981 Reagan administration appoints livestock industry supporters to key positions. + 1986 Executive Order 12,548—extends PRIA formula indefinitely. + 1988 Reform effort to raise grazing fees—blocked in House. + 1990 Reform effort to raise grazing fees—blocked in Senate. + 1991 BLM Reauthorization bill—blocked in House Interior committee, but passed by

Appropriations then killed in Senate. Sea change in House toward raising fees. − 1993 Clinton administration appoints Environmentalist supporters to key positions. + 1993 Appropriations bill battle

—Babbitt doubles grazing fees. —Senate amends with a 1 year moratorium on implementation. —Conference committee works out a compromise fee structure. —Senator Domenici (NM) filibusters until fee increases are dropped.

+ 1994 Babbitt retracts fee increase plans. − 1995 Republican Congress attempt numerous times to pass legislation designed to

preempt Sec. Babbitt’s proposed rule changes, but cannot produce the votes. − 1995 Babbitt issues new, environmentally-based grazing rules for BLM, including

spots on advisory councils for environmentalists. + 1996 U.S. District Court Judge Clarence Brimmer rejects Babbitt’s proposed

rules, finding that BLM must honor the ‘grazing preference’ specified in Taylor Grazing Act of 1934.

Source: Adapted from narratives in Dana and Fairfax (1980), Layzer 2002, and congressional records. a− Shifts balance of power in favor of environmentally-oriented subsystem challengers. + Shifts balance of power in favor of established resource extraction subsystem. = Compromise outcome or no clear advantage for either side. BLM

Wood: The Dynamics of Incrementalism: Subsystems, Politics, and Public Lands 11

Legal Defense Fund brought suit against the Department of Interior over the denial of a petition to have the spotted owl listed as endangered, there was considerable concern over the potential backlash against the environmental movement for frivo- lous litigation. When the U.S. District Court found in their favor, it fundamentally shifted the balance of power within a policy subsystem.

While the battles over grazing rights were fought in Congress, the battles over timber sales were largely fought in the courts. In 1988, injunctions were issued against both the Forest Service and the BLM prohibiting the sale of the federal timber harvest until the requirements of the ESA were met. Powerful interests in Congress responded to the involvement of these new actors by passing a law pro- hibiting injunctions on federal timber sales and mandating that the sales proceed. In an unusual move, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals declared the law unconstitu- tional, restoring the previous injunctions.

Table 3. Forests Management Policy—Key Events

Impactsa Year Events (Events in bold reflect actions in a judicial venue)

− 1981 Scientists determine the spotted owl is in danger under existing timber management practices and recommend protection.

+ 1982–1988 Forest Managers double federal timber harvest under pressure from Reagan White House.

− 1986 Greenworld petitions Fish and Wildlife Services (FWS) to have the owl listed as endangered.

+ 1987 FWS denies the petition under pressure from White House. − 1988 Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund (SCLDF) sues Department of Interior and

FWS for ignoring scientific evidence in denying petition. − 1988 U.S. District Court finds for SCLDF and orders FWS to defend its

decision. − 1988 Portland judge Helen Fry issues temporary injunction against BLM sales

until a plan is in place to protect owl populations. − 1988 Federal District judge William Dwyer enjoins Forest Service for same

reasons. − 1989 GAO report finds that FWS changed reports to facilitate denial. + 1989 Congress passes Hatfield-Adams rider to Appropriations bill. Prohibits

injunctions and allows timber sales to proceed. − 1990 9th Circuit Court of Appeals declares Hatfield-Adams unconstitutional. = 1991 Judge Dwyer makes his injunction against Forest Service permanent

unless a valid plan is presented. = 1993 President Clinton issues long awaited Northwest Forest Plan. + 1994 Judge Dwyer approves Clinton’s plan and allows sales to proceed. + 1995 Republican Congress passes Timber Salvage rider. Eliminates citizen right of

appeal and suspends some provisions of ESA and NEPA for timber sales. + 1995 U.S. District judge Michael Hogan sides with Congress on Timber

Salvage rider. − 1996 9th Circuit Court of Appeals overturns Judge Hogan, invoking ESA

protections.

Source: Adapted from narratives in Dana and Fairfax (1980), Layzer (2002), and congressional records. a− Shifted balance in favor of environmentally-oriented subsystem challengers. + Shifted balance in favor of established resource extraction subsystem. = Compromise outcome or no clear advantage for either side. NEPA, National Environmental Policy Act; ESA, Endangered Species Act.

12 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

In 1995, western timber interests in the newly elected Republican Congress were able to attach a “timber salvage” rider to the Emergency Supplemental Rescissions Act. This was an ambitious attempt to shift the balance of power back to extraction interests. It authorized increased logging in areas where trees had been damaged by fire or insects but still retained some commercial value. In the process, the bill suspended several provisions of the ESA and NEPA for these sales.

Environmentalists—by now accustomed to challenging policy through litiga- tion—filed a number of suits, but the U.S. District Court affirmed the constitution- ality of the salvage rider and allowed the sales to proceed. The 9th Circuit Court of Appeals however, disagreed and overturned the decision, stopping a number of scheduled sales.

The Role of Judicial Actors in a Subsystem

The many similarities between these cases make them an excellent vehicle for examining the impact of judicial actors on policy dynamics. In both cases, an estab- lished subsystem based on a philosophy of resource extraction had been in place for decades. Both cases experienced a low level of attention in Congress and were subject to the jurisdiction of public lands committees. The constituencies promoting reform in each case were part of the general environmental movement, and the strategies that each initially employed were virtually identical.

In each case, a political strategy was attempted first, complete with a redefini- tion of the problem and a concentrated effort to restructure the conflict by recasting the issue in terms of environmental, rather than economic terms. Each group con- ducted a public relations campaign with catch phrases—such as “welfare cowboys,” “hobby ranchers,” and “ancient forest”—designed to frame the conflict from their perspective.

Ultimately, what distinguishes success from failure in these cases is the pres- ence of support from judicial actors. Judicial actors however, cannot base their support on political considerations but must issue their rulings on the basis of facts and the existing laws as passed by Congress. Had the ESA never been passed, it seems unlikely that old-growth timber sales would be at the level they are today. If spotted owl populations were not impacted by logging, it seems unlikely that forest protection would win in a political fight against timber jobs. The lesson from these examples appears to be that an existing statute and a receptive judiciary are able to overcome entrenched interests that are unlikely to be dislodged any other way.

Advocates of grazing reform appear to have reached this conclusion as well. As Table 4 shows, the battle for America’s rangelands is shifting to the courts as well. Though there is considerable support among grazing reformers for a voluntary buyout plan being promoted in Congress, the majority of efforts seem to have shifted to the judicial arena. Since 2000, antigrazing advocates have shifted their emphasis away from negotiating fee increases to legal actions alleging that grazing is an inherently inappropriate and inefficient use of public lands. Reformers argue that public lands provide less than 2 percent of the forage used by the livestock

Wood: The Dynamics of Incrementalism: Subsystems, Politics, and Public Lands 13

industry and that the recreational and ecologic value of the land is considerably higher.6

A recent article on federal grazing policy in the William and Mary Law Review paints this trend in stark perspective:

“Private lawsuits seeking injunctive relief against the federal government, in the absence of physical sickness or financial harm, are a relatively recent cultural phenomenon. The most enthusiastic environmentalists argue that, properly pied, no case motivated by good environmental intentions is unwinnable as a matter of law . . . Given the continuing growth in the number of wild animal activists, outdoor enthusiasts, and the annual increase of young, idealistic lawyers going into environmental law, regional and local proliferation of environmental groups who have decided that they must litigate to be taken seriously . . . is likely to continue” (Rundle 2004).

Implications and Conclusions

For more than a decade now, Punctuated Equilibrium scholars have studied the conditions under which policy subsystems form, change, and break up. In many,

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The Resource Extraction Subsystem melbourne essay help

The Resource Extraction Subsystem

The establishment of the Forest Service within the Department of Agriculture speaks volumes about the resource extraction orientation with which Congress viewed the nation’s forests in 1905. In fact, the founding principle of the agency, as articulated by Forest Service Chief Gifford Pinchot, was to insure the “continued prosperity of the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and livestock interests” by man- aging the land so as to produce a “permanent and accessible supply of water, wood, and forage” (Wilkerson 1992, 128).

The pattern was much the same when it came to the nation’s rangelands. Public lands in the West were considered too dry for cultivation and were not transferred to private ownership after the pattern of the East. Ranchers however, recognized a potential in these lands for raising livestock. Generally viewed as good for nothing but forage for cattle at the time, Congress encouraged this use of the land to promote the economic development of the West. In 1906, Congress did begin to charge ranch- ers for grazing on Forest Service land, and in 1934 they began to regulate grazing on the remaining public lands as well, but ranching interests were quite successful at shaping the policy image so that major battles focused on how much ranchers should pay for grazing privileges rather than whether grazing should be allowed at all. In 1946, the Bureau of Land Management was created to manage the public lands, but by all accounts, the policy image in place continued to define “manage- ment” as distributing allotments and collecting grazing fees (Dana and Fairfax 1980).

In Congress, the management of both national forests and rangelands has exhib- ited many of the characteristics of a traditional policy monopoly, illustrated in Figure 1. One measure of the strength of a policy monopoly is the level of jurisdic- tional overlap—that is, the proportion of total congressional attention in a topic area that is located in a single committee (see Baumgartner, Jones, and MacLeod 2000 for a discussion of jurisdictional overlap). When a single committee conducts most of the hearings on a particular topic, there is little overlap and a high degree of juris- dictional clarity with respect to that issue.2

The Senate Energy and Natural Resources committee has experienced several name changes over the years,3 but has maintained consistent and nearly exclusive jurisdiction over most public lands issues including both grazing rights and timber extraction. In the House of Representatives, the Resources Committee has followed a similar path.4 The total number of hearings with descriptions that include refer- ence to the words grazing, forests, timber, endangered species, and spotted owl are presented in Table 1.

Of the 50 hearings held during this time period that dealt specifically with grazing issues, just 10 were held outside the Public Lands subsystem. Of those, only two engaged the issue of grazing fees directly, and these appear to have been sup- portive of ranching interests rather than challenges to the subsystem. When exam- ined according to chamber, the Resources Committee in the House controlled 72 percent of total hearings on grazing issues between 1946 and 2002, while in the Senate, the Energy and Natural Resources Committee held more than 90 percent of

6 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

Public lands committees in House and Senate

Resource extraction

(policy image)

BLM and forest service

Logging and grazing interests Low fees, more timber sales.

Less regulation.

Votes, campaign contributions,

pressure.

Budget, oversight, statutory

mandates

Figure 1. The Public Lands Resource Extraction Subsystem.

Table 1. Committee Hearing Distribution for Public Lands Key wordsa 1946–2002

Committeesb Grazing Forests Timber Endangered Spotted Species Owl

All Hearingsc

Agricultured 8 (16%) 42 (38%) 47 (36%) 0 (0%) 1 (11%) Public Landse 40 (80%) 58 (52%) 56 (43%) 24 (31%) 4 (44%) Environmentf 0 (0%) 2 (2%) 1 (0%) 42 (55%) 4 (44%) Othersg 2 (4%) 10 (9%) 25 (20%) 11 (14%) 0 (0%)

Total 50 112 129 77 9 Nonreferral only

Agricultured 1 (6%) 16 (30%) 22 (32%) 0 (0%) 1 (14%) Public Landse 16 (89%) 33 (61%) 27 (39%) 19 (43%) 4 (57%) Environmentf 0 (0%) 1 (2%) 0 (0%) 21 (48%) 2 (29%) Othersg 1 (5%) 4 (7%) 20 (28%) 4 (9%) 0 (0%)

Total 18 54 129 44 7

Source: Policy Tools Topic Search, Agendas Project website, Center For American Politics and Public Policy (CAPP), University of Washington. aKeyword search for the total number of hearings with the selected key word in the hearing description in U.S. Senate and House committees. bThe committee consolidation scheme used by the Agendas Project reconciles changing names and jurisdictions over time. Information on committee designations can be found at http://www. policyagendas.org/codebooks/house.html and http://www.policyagendas.org/codebooks/senate.html. cIncludes referral and nonreferral hearings. dComprised of the House and Senate Agriculture committees (CAPP codes 102 and 202). eComprised of House Resources (CAPP code 114) and Senate Energy and Natural Resources (CAPP code 208). fComprised of House Merchant Marine and Fisheries (CAPP code 116) and Senate Environment and Public Works (CAPP code 209). gIncludes Oversight, Small Business, Appropriations, Finance, Governmental Affairs, Transportation, International Relations, Indian Affairs, and Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs.

http://www
http://www.policyagendas.org/codebooks/senate.html

Wood: The Dynamics of Incrementalism: Subsystems, Politics, and Public Lands 7

the hearings over the same time period, suggesting a high degree of jurisdictional clarity in this policy area.

In contrast, the topic of forests is broader with more dimensions such as recre- ation, controlling insect damage, fire prevention, and endangered species impacts. As expected, the data for these hearings exhibits substantially greater overlap than for grazing. Hearings on the key words “forests” and “timber” were held by 15 and 16 different committees respectively. The lion’s share occurred in the Public Lands and Agriculture subsystems, suggesting that a resource extraction frame persists, but the jurisdictional clarity for “forests” and “timber” issues appears to be notice- ably less concentrated than for grazing.

When forest issues are framed in terms of “endangered species” or in this case the “spotted owl,” the hearings’ distribution broadens somewhat. Only 31 percent of the hearings that mention the key words “endangered species” were controlled by the Public Lands subsystem, while 55 percent were held in committees with an environmental focus. Of the nine hearings that were held specifically on the north- ern spotted owl, Public Lands and Environment conducted 44 percent each, though both of the two referral hearings were controlled by the Environment subsystem.

One might be led to suspect that to some degree, this distribution reflects the normal operation of the referrals process, but when the analysis is limited to non- referral hearings only, the ratio of public lands hearings actually increases for all but endangered species key words. King (1997) and others have argued that commit- tees often battle over jurisdictional “turf” by holding nonreferral hearings on an issue. Indeed, according to Feeley (2002), over half of all hearings in the modern Congress are nonreferral hearings. Any committee chair may hold a nonreferral hearing on any topic of interest to the committee, affording ample opportunity for “entrepreneurial members to explore topics beyond their statutory jurisdiction and attempt to expand their influence onto issues nominally beyond their control” (132–33). These data show little evidence of committees extending their jurisdiction into the Public Lands subsystem where issues are not substantially reframed.

Committee membership patterns also reinforced the power of the public lands subsystem. While majority-party status shifted several times between 1947 and 2005 in each chamber, rarely in the past 50 years senators and representatives from the west have found themselves in the minority in public lands committees. Perhaps due to the generally low salience of public lands issues for legislators outside the West, representatives and senators from the West have been the majority voice in both chambers in the bulk of Congresses. Figure 2 shows a graphic illustration of this trend.

Layzer (2002) attributes the continued success of the status quo for grazing priv- ileges to the efforts of powerful western congressmen—especially senators—with strong ties to established ranching interests, and the data in Figure 2 appear to support this contention. In both chambers, a much higher percentage of members hail from the West than from any other single region. In the House, membership from the West has remained relatively stable over time, dipping only occasionally below a majority.

Of course, this does not necessarily mean that all Westerners see eye-to-eye on grazing, or on any public issues for that matter. In point of fact, many districts in

8 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

western states are decidedly pro-environment. But as Fenno points out, members of Congress seek committee assignments that will help them achieve three goals: reelection, influence in Congress, and the opportunity to make policy in areas they think are important (Fenno 1973). Members from pro-environment districts have fewer incentives to serve on the Resources Committee given the necessity of strate- gic committee assignments, suggesting that the patterns observed here may reflect an ideological in addition to a geographic concentration in the House.

In the Senate, the ratio of western membership has been as high as 100 percent in the past, but has shown a clear trend toward a geographically diverse member- ship in recent Congresses. Representation from the West continues however, at levels that are substantially higher than any other region, and key leadership posi- tions continue to be filled by Westerners with strong ties to ranching interests.

The lack of jurisdictional overlap and the concentration of committee member- ship in this case seem to suggest that a single policy image, reinforced by statute, fostered a powerful political subsystem that favored resource-extraction interests and substantially limited the consideration of other perspectives. Members of Congress outside the subsystem have had few incentives to get involved and were generally content to expend their political capital in other areas.

Membership from western States on Public lands committees 1947–2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100 19

47 19

49 19

51 19

53 19

55 19

57 19

59 19

61 19

63 19

65 19

67 19

69 19

71 19

73 19

75 19

77 19

79 19

81 19

83 19

85 19

87 19

89 19

91 19

93 19

95 19

97 19

99 20

01 20

03 20

05

Year

P er

ce nt

ag e

Energy and Natural Resources (Senate) Resources (House)

National Environmental Policy Act passes

Figure 2. Western Influence on Public Lands committees Source: Nelson 2005, Stewart and Woon 2005, Congressional Archives 1998–2005.

Note: Western states were operationalized using the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Researchs region coding designation. Those designated “mountain states” or “pacific states” were considered western with two noteworthy exceptions. First, Texas was added to the analysis for its extensive public land base and strong cattle industry, but is not in either region category. Second,

Hawaii was excluded from the analysis though both Senator Akaka and Rep. Abercrombie are long- time members of their respective committees. The states included were WA, OR, CA, ID, UT, NV, NM,

AZ, CO, WY, MT, AK, TX.

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Theoretical Foundations and Background grad school essay help: grad school essay help

Baumgartner and Jones’ (1993, 2002) notions of long periods of equilibrium punctuated by bursts of change integrates and builds upon the substantial litera-

4 Policy Studies Journal, 34:1

ture on policy subsystems, Cobb and Elder’s (1971) distinction between systemic and formal agendas, and Kingdon’s (1995) ideas of policy streams, windows of opportunity, and policy entrepreneurs. They identify the policy subsystem as a key element of agenda setting, defined as a closed system made up of those with com- patible interests in a policy area. Under normal policymaking conditions the agenda space allocated to an issue is dominated and controlled by the subsystem and alter- native voices are systematically excluded.

However, when a group is able to expand the conflict by reframing an issue in such a way as to mobilize previously apathetic members of the electorate, they are able to draw increased attention to their perspective. Sometimes, this initiates a system of positive feedback that feeds upon itself and draws attention from other actors and issue areas until, ultimately, the resource advantage of the subsystem is overcome and a new equilibrium forms inclusive of the widened array of interests. Members of Congress, in particular, are often sensitive to the mobilization of the electorate around an issue and may reprioritize their preference structure to allow the consideration of previously excluded voices. The difficulty for challengers lies in generating enough public concern to give congressional members outside the subsystem sufficient incentives to expend their political capital on the issue.

The growth of the environmental movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s is arguably a textbook example of a Schattschneider mobilization as outlined by Baumgartner and Jones (1993). The conflict expands as opponents of the status quo work to raise awareness and mobilize supporters from the ranks of the uninvolved. A number of focusing events occurred during this time period that drew attention to the need for environmental regulations, and raised the profile of environmental groups generally as legitimate participants in the policy process. The publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962 and the first Earth Day in the April of 1970 were among the most prominent of these events.

Perhaps as a result of widely publicized events such as the spontaneous com- bustion of the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, an oil spill off the coast of California that spoiled nearly 20 miles of coastal beaches, or the increasingly obvious degra- dation of air quality in the nation’s urban centers, Americans embraced Earth Day with unprecedented enthusiasm and a window of opportunity opened for envi- ronmental legislation which included the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970, the Clean Water Act of 1972, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1970, and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973.

These events set the stage for environmentalist challenges in a number of estab- lished policy subsystems including the management of national forests and the public rangelands. In each of these issue areas, a policy image centered on resource extraction had prevailed for decades and each had established powerful and entrenched interests in Congress. However, in each case the rate of extraction was considered unsustainable by environmentalists, and they hoped to use the momen- tum generated by the environmental movement to dislodge the established policy monopolies and force a redefinition of the policy image to incorporate the values of conservation and the noneconomic uses of public lands.

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Subsystems, Politics and Public Lands extended essay help biology

two areas prompts the underlying set of questions for this research. First, why have grazing interests been able to successfully defend their policy image while timber interests have not? Second, what makes one policy subsystem better able to resist external challenges than another? And third, what can these cases contribute to our understanding of the dynamics of mobilization?

The findings in this study suggest that resource-extraction oriented subsystems were quite successful in both issue areas for many years. The institutional structure of Congress and low salience of these issues outside the West allowed small coali- tions, even a single senator, to effectively repel external challenges to either sub- system. Though environmentalist groups have worked for decades to expand conflict and mobilize opposition to the dominant policy image, without a series of key judicial decisions it is possible, even likely, that the timber-extraction subsys- tem would have been able to withstand the environmentalist challenge. This sug- gests that the role of judicial actors in disrupting or preserving an entrenched subsystem has been undervalued in previous explanations, and that in some cases the traditional strategies of conflict expansion and mobilization may be a necessary but insufficient condition for policy change (Schattschneider 1960).

This research is organized in the following way: The data are discussed first, followed by the relevant aspects of the Punctuated Equilibrium theory and a summary of the major developments in each topic area. This is followed by a com- parison of the two cases and a discussion of the factors that contributed to the out- comes observed in these cases. In the final section, I discuss how these outcomes relate to outcomes predicted by the theory and the broader implications of these findings for the literature.

Data

The data used for this research were drawn from a number of sources. Much of the chronological detail for the two cases comes from the congressional record, Dana and Fairfax’s Forest and Range Policy (1980), Judith Layzer’s The Environmental Case (2002), media reports, and a small number of Government Accounting Office (GAO), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and Forest Service publications. The data on committee assignments and characteristics of committee members comes primarily from a series of data sets maintained by Charles Stewart III at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), supplemented with data I gathered to include the 106th through 109th Congresses.1 The data on records of congressional hearings were obtained from the website of the Agendas Project at the Center for American Poli- tics and Public Policy (CAPP) at the University of Washington, supplemented with additional details from Congressional Information Services abstracts.

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Essay on Stability of Security & Development history essay help: history essay help

***PLAGIARISM FREE***

***PLEASE WRITE IN ACTIVE VOICE***

DB Post Response # 1

In a minimum of 200 words, please provide a response to the posts below, with at least two cited sources. Please only use the military sources provided and one outside source if using more than two cited sources.

Note: Rubrics attached.

International Journal – Stability of Security & Development

Region in Crisis: Stabilizing Mali & the Sahel (Journal articles are listed below)

(If the links do not open, please google the article title)

Article #1: Conflicts Colliding in Mali and the Sahel

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290974860_Conflicts_Colliding_in_Mali_and_the_Sahel

Article #2: Sahel State Political Violence in Comparative Perspective

https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.bl/

Article #3: Strengthening the Rule of Law and Human Rights in the Sahel

https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.br/

Article #4: Governance and Conflict in the Sahel’s ‘Ungoverned Space’

https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.bs/

Article #5: Mali: The Disintegration of a “Model African Democracy”

https://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.aq/

Joint Publication 3-07 – Full copy link (Excerpt below): https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_07.pdf

JP 3_07 Stability

excerpt.pdf

Coalition/Joint Force Land Component Command Operations

Planning for Irregular Warfare and Stability Operations

JP 3-07 Stability (Excerpt)

3 August 2016

1

Executive Summary

Stability Operations Functions

Stability operations

functions.

The tasks within each

function are crosscutting,

generating effects across

multiple sectors.

While the assignment of specific tasks and prioritization

among them depends on the mission and conditions of the

operational environment, the stability operations functions,

as a framework, are a tool to help visualize the conduct of

an operation, sequence necessary activities within an

operation, and develop appropriate priorities for those

activities and resource allocation. Individually, the

functions encompass the distinct yet interrelated tasks that

constitute stability activities in a functional sector.

Collectively, they are the pillars upon which the USG

frames the possible tasks required in a stabilization effort.

The functions described here are security, humanitarian

assistance, economic stabilization and infrastructure, rule of

law, and governance and participation.

Strategic communication.

Joint force staffs must

carefully ensure that

messages are consistent

with actions and vice

versa.

Although not discussed specifically in any given functional

area, strategic communication themes and messages, fully

coordinated with other operational activities, enhance the

legitimacy of HN forces and ultimately the stability of the

HN. Public affairs and IO provide the “words,” supported

by the “deeds” of stability operations and CMO.

2

Executive Summary

Stability Operations Functions—Security

The military provides the

security on which stability

can be built.

Security activities seek to protect and control civil

populations, property, and territory. They may be

performed as part of a military occupation during or after

combat, to help defeat an insurgency, or in response to a

humanitarian disaster. Security activities conclude

successfully when civil violence is reduced to a level

manageable by HN law enforcement authorities.

The security requirements vary greatly across the range of

military operations, and the JFC should consider security

actions based on the mission and his understanding of the

operational environment.

In addition to providing security as required, a major joint

force role in stabilization may be to provide support for

security sector reform (SSR). Beyond simply providing

security, SSR includes the broad set of policies, plans,

programs, and activities that a government undertakes to

improve the way it provides safety, security, and justice.

Transformational activities and activities that foster

sustainability in the security sector generally fall under the

rubric of SSR.

To plan for and execute an intervention, CDRs and their

staffs conduct an in-depth analysis to provide relevant

background concerning existing dynamics that could

trigger, exacerbate, or mitigate violent conflict. The key

lies in the development of shared understanding among all

agencies and countries involved about the sources of

violent conflict or civil strife. This conflict diagnosis

should deliver a product that describes the context, core

grievances and resiliencies, drivers of conflict and

mitigating factors, and opportunities for increasing or

decreasing conflict.

Military contribution.

When the joint force is

providing security, the

Department of Defense

will normally have the

lead role in this area;

otherwise, this area is

generally led by the United

States Agency for

Separating warring parties involves establishing distinct

areas of control that keeps factions apart and allows the

joint force to monitor their actions. The establishment of

security fundamentally requires a monopoly on the use of

force by a single entity. In stabilization efforts, the goal is

normally to support a legitimate HN governmental

authority that holds this monopoly, using it to protect the

population, or to help that authority attain the monopoly.

Toward this goal, joint forces take action to support efforts

to end ongoing conflict, build HN security force capacity,

JP 3-07 3

Executive Summary

International

Development’s Bureau of

Democracy, Conflict, and

Humanitarian Assistance.

and disarm adversary forces. DOS’s Bureau of Political-

Military Affairs and various intelligence services could also

play significant supporting roles.

Territorial Security. Side-by-side with the monopoly on

the use of force, the HN government must also be in control

of its borders, and must be able to reasonably monitor and

control movement within its borders, particularly

movement by adversaries. Territorial integrity is a

necessary condition in which ordinary citizens and

legitimate goods are able to move in relative freedom

within the country and across its borders, while illicit

commodities and individuals that present threats to security

are denied free passage.

Public order is one of the

functions of governance

that affects early

perceptions of the

legitimacy of the state and

thus will almost always be

one of the first and most

important public tasks.

Public Order and Safety. Although the Armed Forces of

the United States are not designed or trained, by and large,

to be a constabulary force, the joint force may be called

upon to conduct certain constabulary functions on a

temporary basis until HN or other security forces can

assume those responsibilities. This requirement is largely

driven by the size and presence of the joint force,

particularly in the immediate aftermath of war or other

devastating events.

Protection of Indigenous Infrastructure. Both the short –

and long-term success of any stabilization effort often relies

on the ability of external groups to protect and maintain

critical infrastructure until the HN can resume that

responsibility.

Protection of Personnel Involved in the Stabilization

Effort. The joint force may be called upon to provide

protection for civilian personnel from the United States or

other nations that are assisting in the stabilization effort.

Interagency or international memorandums of agreement

will be required in this instance, laying out specific rules

and responsibilities, as well as rules of engagement. Only

on the rarest of occasions will military forces provide

protection for NGO personnel, and only when directly

requested; many NGOs feel that their reputation for

4

Executive Summary

neutrality, that is their independence from US or any other

political and military influence, forms the basis of their

security—joint forces must be careful not to impinge upon

this reputation.

Threats and

vulnerabilities.

Everyone present during stabilization efforts has the

potential to influence the course of events in ways which

may be positive or negative. The CDR will strive to

understand the full range of participants and their

motivations, aspirations, interests, and relationships.

Generically, the participants can be divided into six

categories based on their aims, methods, and relationships:

adversaries, enemies, belligerents, neutrals, friendlies, and

opportunists.

Security response. Population Security. To provide protection to the population, JFCs employ a range of techniques. Not all will

be popular.

Static protection of key sites (e.g., market places or

refugee camps).

Persistent security in areas secured and held (e.g.,

intensive patrolling and check points).

Targeted action against adversaries (e.g., search or strike

operations).

Population control measures (e.g., curfews and vehicle

restrictions).

Countering Adversaries. Direct military action against

adversaries may be a central component of a stabilization

effort. In which case, setting the conditions for a negotiated

political settlement will entail breaking the ideological,

financial, or intimidatory links within and among different

adversarial and belligerent groups, as well as between them

and the broader population.

Tailored Approaches. A well-targeted, differentiated

strategy for engaging the various participants can transform

the strategic geometry of the conflict. Such a strategy may

allow the CDR to co-opt once adversarial or belligerent

groups into the emerging political settlement.

Security Force Organization. The JFC may organize joint

forces into a number of different composite units for the

purpose of establishing security in and among the

5

Executive Summary

population; these include framework forces, strike forces,

surge forces, and specific focus task forces.

The HN government may

require firm advice, as

well as financial support,

to sustain the capabilities

required.

Security Force Assistance. The generation and subsequent

training of indigenous security forces should be conducted

in a coordinated manner with broader SSR initiatives such

as the development of civilian oversight bodies, judiciary

and detention institutions, as well as transitional justice

mechanisms and disarmament, demobilization, and

reintegration programs.

Transitions. The JFC should consider moving from an international

military security lead to an indigenous lead as soon as

practicable. The ability to transfer this responsibility will be

a function of two inputs: the threat and the capacity of

indigenous security forces.

Stability Operations Functions—Humanitarian Assistance

The humanitarian assistance function includes programs

conducted to meet basic human needs to ensure the social

well-being of the population. Social well-being is

characterized by access to and delivery of basic needs and

services (water, food, shelter, sanitation, and health

services), the provision of primary and secondary

education, the return or voluntary resettlement of those

displaced by violent conflict, and the restoration of a social

fabric and community life.

Civilian development agencies generally break

humanitarian assistance into three categories: emergency

humanitarian and disaster assistance; shorter-term

transition initiatives; and longer-term development

assistance. These generally parallel the military approach of

initial response activities, transformational activities, and

activities that foster sustainability; however, in the civilian

agencies, each category has distinct operational approaches,

staff, and resources.

Armed Forces of the United States participation in

humanitarian assistance generally falls into one of two

categories. Humanitarian assistance that provides support

to alleviate urgent needs in an HN caused by some type of

disaster or catastrophe falls under the rubric of FHA.

Humanitarian assistance conducted as part of programs

6

Executive Summary

designed to increase the long-term capacity of the HN to

provide for the health and well-being of its populace

typically falls under the rubric of NA.

Evaluation and

assessment.

It is normally appropriate to base measures of effectiveness

(MOEs) for humanitarian assistance on The Sphere Project

Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster

Response. The Sphere Project, developed by IGOs and

NGOs involved in humanitarian assistance, recommends

key indicators for provision of water, sanitation, food,

health, shelter, and non-food items in disasters, and

establishes voluntary minimum standards for each sector.

Military contribution. Dislocated Civilian (DC) Support Missions. These missions are specifically designed to support the assistance

and protection for DCs. A “dislocated civilian” is a broad

term primarily used by DOD that includes a displaced

person, an evacuee, an internally displaced person, a

migrant, a refugee, or a stateless person. These persons may

be victims of conflict or natural or man-made disaster.

Typically, the United Nations (UN) or other IGOs and

NGOs will build and administer camps, if needed, and

provide basic assistance and services to the population.

However, when the US military is requested to provide

support, DC support missions may include camp

organization (basic construction and administration);

provision of care (food, supplies, medical attention, and

protection); and placement (movement or relocation to

other countries, camps, and locations).

Trafficking in Persons (TIP). Simply stated, TIP is

modern-day slavery, involving victims who are forced,

defrauded, or coerced into labor or sexual exploitation.

Ongoing TIP in an area undermines ongoing stabilization

efforts, as well as US and HN legitimacy. Ongoing security

activities, such as border protection and freedom of

movement activities, should support the HN’s battle

against TIP.

Emergency Food Assistance and Food Security. IGOs

such as the World Food Programme, NGOs such as

Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, and

USG agencies such as USAID can be expected to provide

for the food needs of the relevant population. In some

7

Executive Summary

cases, military involvement may consist of providing

security for food aid warehouses and delivery convoys in

uncertain and hostile environments.

Shelter. Although the basic need for shelter is similar in

most emergencies, considerations such as the kind of

housing needed, the design used, what materials are

available, who constructs the housing, and how long it must

last will differ significantly in each situation.

Humanitarian Demining Assistance. DOD humanitarian

demining programs are coordinated by the designated

CCDR humanitarian mine action program manager, funded

by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency Overseas

Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid funds, and

coordinated with interagency partners by the office of the

Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and

Low-Intensity Conflict and Interdependent Capabilities.

Public Health. Joint force operations to rebuild and

protect infrastructure, potable water, proper sewage

disposal, and essential health services that contribute

significantly to the health of the HN population must be

closely planned and coordinated with the HN ministries and

USG agencies responsible for health sector redevelopment

assistance. The JFC may employ forces to conduct medical

humanitarian and civil assistance to support local military

and civilian health systems or provide direct public health

care to include primary medical, dental, veterinary, and

other needed care. During stability operations the military

may need to provide public health services for

humanitarian reasons as well as to build community trust in

the HN government.

Education. Military activities to support education

programs generally focus on physical infrastructure.

Transitions. Because humanitarian assistance is largely a civilian

endeavor, with the military in a supporting role, the

termination of US or multinational military humanitarian

assistance activities will not normally coincide with the

termination of international efforts.

8

Executive Summary

Stability Operations Functions—Economic Stabilization and Infrastructure

The economic stabilization

and infrastructure

function includes

programs conducted to

ensure an economy in

which people can pursue

opportunities for

livelihoods within a

predictable system of

economic governance

bound by law.

Economic stabilization consists of restoring employment

opportunities, initiating market reform, mobilizing

domestic and foreign investment, supervising monetary

reform, and rebuilding public structures. Infrastructure

restoration consists of the reconstitution of power,

transportation, communications, health and sanitation, fire

fighting, education, mortuary services, and environmental

control.

Economic and infrastructure security and development are

inherently civilian undertakings; however, the presence of

US forces will almost always have an impact, even

indirectly, on this area. There may be times when more

direct military involvement in economic development will

be necessary: for example, when conditions restrict civilian

movement or when civilian agencies have not yet arrived in

the area.

Evaluation and

assessment.

Each country has a unique economic structure based on its

resources, the needs of the people, laws, customs,

traditions, and level of development. The assessment

should describe the situation, end state, CDR’s intent, and

national strategic objectives to stabilize a post-conflict

economy, reduce the economic drivers of conflict, and

increase institutional capacity. The four steps in conducting

an economic assessment are: compile a country economic

profile; develop a country economic implementation

plan; identify and analyze the economic drivers of any

ongoing conflict; and prepare an economic section for

inclusion in an initial staff estimate.

Military contribution. Employment Generation. Providing employment is an immediate peacekeeping task, a post-conflict objective, and

a means of establishing the foundation for future economic

growth and political stability. Key determinants of the

appropriate nature of the military role in employment

generation include the general security environment, the

condition of the economic-related infrastructure, the scope

of the need for employment generation programs, and the

access of civilian responders to the area.

Monetary Policy. Establishing a central bank system and

basic monetary policy is foundational to a recovering

economy. The military contribution to this establishment is

peripheral and should be thought of strictly in terms of

9

Executive Summary

providing required security, supporting resources (e.g.,

USG office equipment, specific CA expertise).

Fiscal Policy and Governance. The military will

contribute to HN fiscal actions by providing security for

financial institutions and for cash distribution, including

salary or contractual payments, as required.

Critical Infrastructure. The joint force may be called

upon to support infrastructure development by providing

security, funding and materiel, CA functional expertise, or

construction.

Quick impact projects. Quick impact projects (QIPs) are relatively short-term,

small-scale, low-cost, and rapidly implemented

stabilization or development initiatives that are designed to

deliver an immediate and highly visible impact, generally

at the local provincial or community level. In more

permissive environments, it is only where there is a

capability gap that cannot be filled by another actor, or

where the military possesses particular specialist skills that

QIPs are likely to be implemented by the joint force. Where

provincial reconstruction teams (PRTs) or other

interagency field-based teams (e.g., field advance civilian

teams) exist, much of this activity will be funded, planned,

and implemented by development agencies coordinated

through the PRT or interagency team.

Other considerations. Other considerations for economic stabilization and

infrastructure include: ownership issues; cost recovery;

getting services to those in need; contracting as a

management tool; business, legal and regulatory

environment; maintenance standards; security; and

accountability, auditing, and financial oversight.

Transitions. JFCs must anticipate the transition from military to civilian

program management and plan actions supportive of the

long-term strategy. Joint forces can provide immediate

support for economic stabilization, but the programs are

frequently not viewed as long-term solutions. To maximize

project effectiveness, these projects should be sequenced

with the work of international civilian agencies and with

the private sector to ensure continuity of effort with

employees, functions, and support. The military’s role is to

help restore normalcy and fill the gap until civilian-led,

longer-term programs commence.

10

Executive Summary

Stability Operations Functions—Rule of Law

The rule of law is

fundamental to legitimate

governance.

The rule of law function refers to programs conducted to

ensure all individuals and institutions, public and private,

and the state itself are held accountable to the law, which is

supreme. Perceived inequalities in the administration of the

law, and real or apparent injustices, are triggers for

instability.

Security Sector Reform. SSR centers not only on the

security forces of the HN, but also on broader rule of law

initiatives. The overall objective of SSR is to provide an

effective and legitimate public service that is transparent,

accountable to civilian authority, and responsive to the

needs of the public.

Staff Judge Advocate Review of Rule of Law Programs.

Programs to influence the legal systems of the HN are not

above the law. Apart from US policy considerations,

stability operations in the rule of law must themselves be

governed by the rule of law; actions must be reviewed to

ensure that they comply with applicable provisions of US

law, international law, and HN law, as well as any UN or

other international mandate governing the intervention.

Evaluation and

assessment.

The necessary first step is an effective assessment that is

comprehensive enough to provide situational understanding

of the status of rule of law and that describes the

deficiencies in a country’s justice and security systems and

does so holistically.

One of the most important initial steps in conducting rule of

law programs is determining what law applies in the HN. If

the JFC lacks understanding of the HN legal system and

how it functions, it will be difficult to make informed

decisions about how US forces can or should operate in

relation to that system.

Military contribution. Establishing an Interim Criminal Justice System. When conditions require the restoration of governance,

establishing an interim justice system is a prerequisite.

Civilian agencies normally support the development of an

interim criminal justice system; however, when operating

in a failed state, especially during and immediately after

conflict, the joint force may be required to supply military

police, legal, CA, and other personnel to fulfill these roles.

11

Executive Summary

Personal Property. One of the most vital services

provided by the judiciary branch is the resolution of

property disputes. Typically, the military’s role in resolving

disputes is limited unless the joint force implements these

mechanisms in the absence of a functioning HN

government.

War Crimes Tribunals and Truth Commissions. While

a military governing authority may operate military

commissions and provost courts, the international

community oversees the conduct of war crimes courts,

tribunals, and truth commissions.

Transitions. The military’s role in ensuring rule of law, other than

providing security, is normally limited; however, when

operating in a failed or failing state, especially during and

immediately after conflict, the joint force may be required

to play a direct role in capacity building of justice systems

and security sectors. As soon as the security situation

warrants, these programs should be transitioned to civilian

agencies, either from the US or multinational partners, or

those of the HN.

Stability Operations Functions—Governance and Participation

Stable governance

provides a foundation on

which rule of law and

economic activity can

thrive and become drivers

of security and stability.

Governance and participation refers to programs conducted

to help the people to share, access, or compete for power

through nonviolent political processes and to enjoy the

collective benefits and services of the state. Stable

governance is characterized by a government that provides

essential services and serves as a responsible steward of

public resources; government officials who are held

accountable through political and legal processes; and a

population that can participate in governance through civil

society organizations, an independent media, and political

parties. Military substitution for absent international

civilian leadership should be considered a temporary

solution, and civilian expertise and advice integrated into

the planning process through appropriate reachback or in-

theater advisors.

Evaluation and

assessment.

The Democracy and Governance Assessment is an

assessment framework developed by USAID, designed to

assist civilian and military leaders prioritize and administer

HN governance areas needing assistance. Data collection

and analysis may involve a combination of research and

interviews or focus group sessions with key country

12

Executive Summary

stakeholders. Particularly when combined with the

Interagency Conflict Assessment Framework assessment of

any ongoing conflict, the Democracy and Governance

Assessment helps identify and assess key issues, key

people, and key institutions in HN governance.

Military contribution. Support National Constitution Processes. When the HN has no government, as may be the case during immediate

post-conflict reconstruction or interventions in failed states,

developing a national constitution is typically an important

first step to establishing a foundation for governance and

the rule of law. The military can support this process both

with CA functional expertise, as required, and the provision

of security and logistic support for key constitutional

processes such as debates and balloting.

Support Transitional Governance. The military may

support transitional governments through CMO support to

civil administration (SCA) as well as providing security to

governmental leaders and institutions of all branches of the

government. Efforts to support transitional governance are

shared between DOS and DOD, with leadership depending

on the circumstances.

Support Local Governance. Even before national

governance institutions and processes are established, the

joint force should support the establishment of effective

governance at the local level. The military support to local

governance may include restoring essential services as

required, providing CMO SCA, or providing security to

governmental leaders and institutions of all branches of the

government.

Support Anticorruption Initiatives. Corruption

undermines confidence in the state, impedes the flow of

aid, concentrates wealth into the hands of a generally

unelected, unaccountable, and illegitimate minority, and

provides elites with illicit means of protecting their

positions and interests.

Support Elections. While civilian agencies and

organizations that maintain strict transparency guide the

elections process, military forces provide the support that

enables broad participation by the local populace. This

certainly includes security, but may also include logistic

support.

13

Executive Summary

Local governance and

building on local

capacities.

Joint force governance efforts should build on the

foundations of existing capacity—however insubstantial

they are, be they formal or informal, be they national or

local. By identifying existing capacities on which to build,

governance capacity building is more likely to develop

approaches that are both systemically desirable and

culturally feasible.

Essential services. Whether following a US intervention or during peacekeeping operations, COIN operation, or other

intervention, or in response to a natural disaster, the

restoration of essential services in a fragile area is a key

action to achieve security. This basic function of local

governance is often lost during conflict and other disasters;

efforts to restore governance, particularly at the local level,

should focus on essential services—generally referred to as

SWEAT-MSO: sewage, water, electricity, academics

(meaning schools), trash, medical, safety, and other

considerations.

As with all stability operations, the joint force follows the

lead of other USG agencies, particularly USAID, in the

restoration of essential services. In many circumstances,

local or international development and humanitarian

organizations may be operating in theater and able to fulfill

this function. The military contribution will be focused on

enabling them to expand their access to the population.

However, only military forces may be able to operate in

some areas.

Elections. In a post-conflict environment, elections are often one of

the first and most visible steps toward nonviolent political

transition, signaling the transfer of authority from the

international community to HN leaders.

Without the establishment

of a secure environment,

an election is prone to

failure.

In this context, the ability of US or multinational forces to

conduct an election support mission successfully, in

particular through achieving a secure environment, can be

critical to the establishment of a legitimate government and

attainment of overall mission objectives. The JFC, or

liaisons, should participate in principals, donors,

implementing agencies coordination to help coordinate and

integrate security and election implementation strategies.

14

Executive Summary

Media. The media can be an important accountability mechanism

for the government, helping to maintain the rule of law.

Additionally, media can be useful in identifying gaps in

government services through advocacy.

Joint forces may establish media outlets to meet the need to

convey information to the public immediately, to dispel

rumors, and to counteract the effects of hate speech and

inflammatory propaganda. These efforts are often designed

to preempt or compete with media outlets controlled by

adversaries. The joint force may need to fill the vacuum in

the provision of critical information to the population about

stabilization activities, especially when free and

independent media are lacking.

Support to civil

administration.

SCA is assistance to stabilize a foreign government. SCA

consists of planning, coordinating, advising, or assisting

with those activities that reinforce or restore civil

administration.

SCA in friendly territory includes advising friendly

authorities and performing specific functions within the

limits of authority and liability established by international

treaties and agreements. SCA in occupied territory

encompasses the establishment of a transitional military

authority, as directed by the Secretary of Defense, to

exercise executive, legislative, and judicial authority over

the populace of a territory that US forces have taken from

an enemy by force of arms until an indigenous civil

government can be established.

Other considerations. The burdens of governance require culturally astute leaders and joint forces capable of adapting to nuances of religion,

ethnicity, and a number of other considerations essential to

success.

The military force should, consistent with security

requirements, respect the religious celebrations and the

legitimate activities of religious leaders.

Archives and records, current and historical, of all branches

of the former government should be secured and preserved.

Large quantities of mail and other documents are often

found in post offices or at other points of central

15

Executive Summary

communications. The joint force should seize, secure, and

protect such materials until the forces can process and

deliver them.

In general, the joint force protects and preserves all

historical and cultural sites, monuments, and works;

religious shrines and objects of art; and any other national

collections of artifacts or art.

Successful capacity building relies on dependable vetting

processes to screen potential civil servants from the HN.

These processes help CDRs select qualified, competent

officials while reducing the threat of security risks.

Transitions. Poorly timed and conceived transitions create opportunities

for hostile groups to exploit. This is particularly the case if

the HN government fails to adequately discharge a

responsibility that was previously successfully discharged

by intervening organizations. Such an outcome severely

undermines population confidence in the government.

The transition of governance to HN authorities will not

occur by default. Establishing sustainable governance must

involve extensive international and interagency

coordination from the very beginning to ensure a successful

transition. Joint force support to governance should focus

on restoring the capacity of the HN, as well as enabling the

other USG agencies and IGOs. All MOE, end state,

transition, and termination planning should reflect this goal.

CONCLUSION

This publication provides doctrine for the conduct of

stability operations during joint operations within the

broader context of USG efforts. It provides guidance for

operating across the range of military operations to support

USG agencies, foreign governments, and IGOs, or to lead

such missions, tasks, and activities until it is feasible to

transfer lead responsibility.

16

ADP 3-07

Stability.pdf

POST 1.docx

The Sahel region of Africa, including Mali, stretches across the continent from Senegal on the east to Sudan in the west.  This region faces a myriad of problems.  The Sahel has inadequate basic services, unemployment with chronic poverty as well as socio-economic disparity (Zyck, S. and Muggah, R., 2013).  The high rate of population growth coupled with food insecurity gives way to a humanitarian crisis (Affa’s Mindzie, M., 2013).  With the addition of extreme violence, the Sahel has ineffective rule of law that leads to trafficking of drugs, people, arms, and violence in the region (Dowd, C and Raleigh, C., 2013).  There is also political breakdown that enables regional conflict and fertile provides ground for politically violent extremism.

Stabilization is the “process by which military and nonmilitary actors collectively apply various instruments of national power to address drivers of conflict, foster host-nation resiliencies, and create conditions that enable sustainable peace and security” (Department of Defense, 2016, p.ix).  All of the stability functions are compromised in the Sahel region.  The priority of work starts with security and humanitarian assistance, followed by rule of law.  The population has the right and deserves to live in a safe environment that allows for freedom of maneuver for life’s general patterns.

Multiple lines of effort must be applied to render the conditions ripe for meeting the commander’s intent for the operational environment.  The most demanding issue and most critical to overall success is the region’s security.  Security must be the primary line of effort in order to provide the citizens of the Sahel with the potential to live in a productive and healthy region. It is very unlikely that the safety of the region will be accomplished without military action due to the lack of government presence as well as little to nonexistent law enforcement.  The political degradation leads one to the assumption that a political solution will not be viable.  If security can be implemented in the region, lawlessness and the humanitarian crisis will certainly fade.

References

Affa’s Mindzie, M. (July 2013). Strengthening the rule of law and human rights in the Sahel. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 2(2): 30, pp. 1-12.

Department of Defense. (2016). Stability (JP 3-07). Retrieved from https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_07.pdf

Dowd, C and Raleigh, C. (July 2013). Sahel state political violence in comparative perspective. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 2(2): 25, pp. 1-11.

Zyck, S. and Muggah, R. (July 2013). Conflicts colliding in Mali and the Sahel. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 2(2): 16, pp. 1-6.

RUBRICS.pdf

Form 1009C

Contribution to Group Discussion Assessment

Levels of Achievement

Criteria Failed Unsatisfactory Marginal Developing Proficient Exemplary

Quality and Scope of Posted Content

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Initial posting is not on topic; the content is unrelated to the discussion question; post demonstrates superficial thought and poor preparation. No depth in response to classmates; response does not relate directly, either conceptually or materially, to classmate postings.

9 to 11 points

Initial posting demonstrates a lack of reflection and answers few aspects of the discussion question; Development of concepts is not evident. Provides questionable comments of fails to offer new information to other posts; Responses do not promote further discussion of topic.

12 to 14 points

Initial posting demonstrates legitimate reflection and answers most aspects of the discussion question; full development of concepts is not evident. Provides relevant comments and new information to other posts; not all responses promote further discussion of topic.

15 to 17 points

Initial posting reveals a clear understanding of all aspects of the discussion question; uses factual and relevant information; demonstrates proficient development of concepts. Demonstrates understanding of other posts; extends discussion by building on previous posts and offering perspectives.

18 to 20 points

Initial posting demonstrates a thorough understanding of all aspects of the discussion question; uses factual and relevant information from scholarly sources; demonstrates full and insightful development of key concepts. Demonstrates critical analysis of other posts; extends meaningful discussion by building on previous posts and offering alternative perspectives.

Collaborative Communication Skills

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Rarely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Does not effectively engage with classmates by acknowledging and accepting other points of view. Publically critical of the work of others. Often displays unproductive communication that instigates a negative response rather than promotes collaboration.

9 to 11 points

Rarely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Publically critical of the work of others. Rarely displays a positive narrative. Rarely shares with and supports the efforts of others. Sometimes causes undue tension or issues in the discussion forum.

12 to 14 points

Usually provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Rarely publically critical of the work of others. Often displays a positive narrative. Usually shares with and supports the efforts of others. Does not cause undue tension or issues in the discussion forum.

15 to 17 points

Routinely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussion. Never publically critical of the work of others. Always displays a positive narrative. Regularly shares with and supports the efforts of others. Maintains a productive and collaborative discussion with classmates.

18 to 20 points

Always provides creative ideas when participating in group discussion. Supports the work of others while keeping discussion on topic. Always displays a positive narrative. Regularly shares with and supports the efforts of others. Leads a productive and collaborative discussion with classmates.

Critical and Creative Thinking

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Demonstrates a lack of proficiency in conceptualizing the problem; viewpoints and

9 to 11 points

Demonstrates limited or poor proficiency in conceptualizing the problem; viewpoints and

12 to 14 points

Demonstrates developing proficiency in conceptualizing and providing

15 to 17 points

Demonstrates considerable proficiency in conceptualizing the problem

18 to 20 points

Demonstrates mastery in conceptualizing the problem and presenting

Name

Description

Rubric Detail

Page 1 of 2

Levels of Achievement

Criteria Failed Unsatisfactory Marginal Developing Proficient Exemplary

assumptions of experts lack analysis and evaluation; conclusions are either absent or poorly conceived and supported.

assumptions of experts are not sufficiently analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are either poorly conceived and supported.

context to the problem; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are not sufficiently analyzed, synthesized, or evaluated; conclusions lack clear rationale.

and presenting appropriate perspectives; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are accurately analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are logically presented with applicable rationale.

logical perspectives; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are superbly analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are logically presented with detailed rationale.

Reference to Supporting Sources

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Does not refer to assigned readings or other sources; fails to cite properly and/or cites questionable sources.

9 to 11 points

Refers to questionable sources. Attempts to cite sources with major deficiencies in citation format; fails to use two or more sources in initial post. Fails to use any source in response to classmates.

12 to 14 points

Refers to scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and attempts to cite sources with few deficiencies in citation format; fails to use two or more sources in initial post.

15 to 17 points

Refers to and properly cites scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and research with two or more sources cited in the initial post and at least one source cited in response to classmates.

18 to 20 points

Refers to and properly cites recent and relevant scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and research with two or more sources cited in the initial post and at least one source cited in response to classmates.

Style and Mechanics

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Writing contains numerous wordy, vague, or poorly constructed sentences. Frequent instances of grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors.

9 to 11 points

Writing contains few wordy, vague, or poorly constructed sentences. Occasional instances of grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors.

12 to 14 points

Writing displays a developing sense of academic writing with structurally sound sentences. 5-10 errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

15 to 17 points

Writing displays a proficiency of academic writing with clearly written and structurally sound sentences. Less than 5 errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

18 to 20 points

Writing displays a mastery of academic writing with clearly written and structurally sound sentences. No errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

Assignment Requirements

-31 to -31 points

One or more posts contain plagiarism.

-15 to -15 points

Failed to meet assignment requirements and one or more submissions after due date.

-10 to -10 points

Failed to meet assignment requirements.

-5 to -5 points

One or more submissions after due date.

0 to 0 points

Met all requirements.

0 to 0 points

Met all requirements.

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Form 1009C

Contribution to Group Discussion Assessment

Levels of Achievement

Criteria Failed Unsatisfactory Marginal Developing Proficient Exemplary

Quality and Scope of Posted Content

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Initial posting is not on topic; the content is unrelated to the discussion question; post demonstrates superficial thought and poor preparation. No depth in response to classmates; response does not relate directly, either conceptually or materially, to classmate postings.

9 to 11 points

Initial posting demonstrates a lack of reflection and answers few aspects of the discussion question; Development of concepts is not evident. Provides questionable comments of fails to offer new information to other posts; Responses do not promote further discussion of topic.

12 to 14 points

Initial posting demonstrates legitimate reflection and answers most aspects of the discussion question; full development of concepts is not evident. Provides relevant comments and new information to other posts; not all responses promote further discussion of topic.

15 to 17 points

Initial posting reveals a clear understanding of all aspects of the discussion question; uses factual and relevant information; demonstrates proficient development of concepts. Demonstrates understanding of other posts; extends discussion by building on previous posts and offering perspectives.

18 to 20 points

Initial posting demonstrates a thorough understanding of all aspects of the discussion question; uses factual and relevant information from scholarly sources; demonstrates full and insightful development of key concepts. Demonstrates critical analysis of other posts; extends meaningful discussion by building on previous posts and offering alternative perspectives.

Collaborative Communication Skills

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Rarely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Does not effectively engage with classmates by acknowledging and accepting other points of view. Publically critical of the work of others. Often displays unproductive communication that instigates a negative response rather than promotes collaboration.

9 to 11 points

Rarely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Publically critical of the work of others. Rarely displays a positive narrative. Rarely shares with and supports the efforts of others. Sometimes causes undue tension or issues in the discussion forum.

12 to 14 points

Usually provides useful ideas when participating in group discussions. Rarely publically critical of the work of others. Often displays a positive narrative. Usually shares with and supports the efforts of others. Does not cause undue tension or issues in the discussion forum.

15 to 17 points

Routinely provides useful ideas when participating in group discussion. Never publically critical of the work of others. Always displays a positive narrative. Regularly shares with and supports the efforts of others. Maintains a productive and collaborative discussion with classmates.

18 to 20 points

Always provides creative ideas when participating in group discussion. Supports the work of others while keeping discussion on topic. Always displays a positive narrative. Regularly shares with and supports the efforts of others. Leads a productive and collaborative discussion with classmates.

Critical and Creative Thinking

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Demonstrates a lack of proficiency in conceptualizing the problem; viewpoints and

9 to 11 points

Demonstrates limited or poor proficiency in conceptualizing the problem; viewpoints and

12 to 14 points

Demonstrates developing proficiency in conceptualizing and providing

15 to 17 points

Demonstrates considerable proficiency in conceptualizing the problem

18 to 20 points

Demonstrates mastery in conceptualizing the problem and presenting

Name

Description

Rubric Detail

Page 1 of 2

Levels of Achievement

Criteria Failed Unsatisfactory Marginal Developing Proficient Exemplary

assumptions of experts lack analysis and evaluation; conclusions are either absent or poorly conceived and supported.

assumptions of experts are not sufficiently analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are either poorly conceived and supported.

context to the problem; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are not sufficiently analyzed, synthesized, or evaluated; conclusions lack clear rationale.

and presenting appropriate perspectives; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are accurately analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are logically presented with applicable rationale.

logical perspectives; viewpoints and assumptions of experts are superbly analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated; conclusions are logically presented with detailed rationale.

Reference to Supporting Sources

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Does not refer to assigned readings or other sources; fails to cite properly and/or cites questionable sources.

9 to 11 points

Refers to questionable sources. Attempts to cite sources with major deficiencies in citation format; fails to use two or more sources in initial post. Fails to use any source in response to classmates.

12 to 14 points

Refers to scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and attempts to cite sources with few deficiencies in citation format; fails to use two or more sources in initial post.

15 to 17 points

Refers to and properly cites scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and research with two or more sources cited in the initial post and at least one source cited in response to classmates.

18 to 20 points

Refers to and properly cites recent and relevant scholarly sources from assigned or outside reading and research with two or more sources cited in the initial post and at least one source cited in response to classmates.

Style and Mechanics

0 to 5 points

No or irrelevant discussion participation.

6 to 8 points

Writing contains numerous wordy, vague, or poorly constructed sentences. Frequent instances of grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors.

9 to 11 points

Writing contains few wordy, vague, or poorly constructed sentences. Occasional instances of grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors.

12 to 14 points

Writing displays a developing sense of academic writing with structurally sound sentences. 5-10 errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

15 to 17 points

Writing displays a proficiency of academic writing with clearly written and structurally sound sentences. Less than 5 errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

18 to 20 points

Writing displays a mastery of academic writing with clearly written and structurally sound sentences. No errors in grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation.

Assignment Requirements

-31 to -31 points

One or more posts contain plagiarism.

-15 to -15 points

Failed to meet assignment requirements and one or more submissions after due date.

-10 to -10 points

Failed to meet assignment requirements.

-5 to -5 points

One or more submissions after due date.

0 to 0 points

Met all requirements.

0 to 0 points

Met all requirements.

Page 2 of 2

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Meaning and Policy Implications writing essay help: writing essay help

Imagine you are a policy analyst for one of the following groups: 1) Education Advancement Today (“EAT”), which seeks to reduce student debt and the student cost of higher education, or 2) Help Investers Today (“HIT”), which seeks to eliminate regulations in the finance industry.

Write a memo to either MOM’s or to HIT’s newly-hired director that:

1) Explains the meaning and policy implications of the terms:

1 “event: occurrences with social consequences”,

2 “condition : situation accepted as inevitable or unchangeable”,

3“problem: sitions that people seek to change”, and

4“public problem : situations people seek to have the government help to change”;

2) Uses the above terms to develop a strategy to direct political and/or public attention to your issue;

3) Explains what a “problem broker” is induvial, group, and coalitions that seek to promote their policy objectives by directing political attention towards specific issues and controlling how those issues are viewed.

and how they might promote your policy goals;

3) Considers whether this coming year will be a good year to advance your cause, and why or why not.

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Essay on Stability of Security and Development best college essay help

Google search Artical custom essay help

1. Provide an example of APA parenthetical and bibliographic reference using one of the articles provided in this module.

2. Explain what you learned from the articles and video on what shapes information.

Articles & video

Google Search Article

Commercial Content Article

A humorous look at scientific findings and media

3.  Bibliography for your public problem (climate change). At least 10 sources.

4.  Discuss how you would ascertain a source is considered scholarly information.

5.  Discuss how you would ascertain a source is considered popular information.

6.  Discuss how you will evaluate a source’s credibility.

7.  Explain how you will ascertain the audience of the information.

8.  Explain how you will explain why you included the sources you selected and why you will include this information.

Part 2:

Make a PowerPoint of the public problem: climate change, and write a one-page summary (in APA style)

Your problem presentation should be 2 minutes plus 3 minutes for discussion, and should include, at a minimum, the answers to the questions listed below.

· A compelling overview of the problem.

· Make sure you provide data, indicators, photos, graphs, etc. to make your case.

· Resolution. Look up 1 or 2 public policies in California according to the public problem to see what happened with the policies. Give your ideas that how to move forward, and how they changed in terms of the policies.

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The Dynamics of Incrementalism essay help websites: essay help websites

The Policy Studies Journal, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2006

0162-895X © 2006 The Policy Studies Journal Published by Blackwell Publishing. Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA, and 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ.

11

The Dynamics of Incrementalism: Subsystems, Politics, and Public Lands

Robert S. Wood

A host of research has been produced in the decade since Baumgartner and Jones’ theory of punctu- ated equilibrium first drew attention to the dynamics of policy change over time. Much of this research follows a topic across time, highlighting the shift from negative to positive feedback as challengers push an issue from subsystem to institutional level. Far less attention has been paid to the periods between major punctuations, neglecting key questions about whether incremental periods reflect an absence of challengers or the successful defense of established subsystem interests.

This research is a comparison of policy change across two segments of environmental policy. The breakup of the timber subsystem was a clear victory for environmentalists, yet these same actors have been largely unsuccessful at dislodging established grazing interests. These findings highlight the strategic value of venue shifting for bypassing entrenched interests and illustrate the potential for suc- cessful challenges to occur in judicial venues.

KEY WORDS: policy process, subsystem, punctuated equilibrium, venue shifting, incrementalism, public lands policy

A great deal of progress appears to have been made in recent years in under- standing the agenda-setting stage of the policy process. After decades of largely descriptive, qualitative work that produced many interesting but rarely generaliz- able case studies, the policy process has experienced a renaissance of thought in the last 20 years that is comparable to Easton’s first conceptions of policymaking as a system (Easton 1957) or Lasswell’s development of the stages metaphor (Lasswell 1956 and 1971). Particularly at the national level, a number of solid empiric studies have emerged to support the theoretical modeling of the agenda process outlined by Kingdon (1995), Cobb and Elder (1971), and Baumgartner and Jones (1993, 2002).

Indeed, more and more there seems to be a sense among scholars of progress toward a genuine understanding of agenda dynamics, with new efforts building squarely on the contributions of previous findings and comparatively little rein- vention of the wheel. This is not to say that alternative perspectives have disap- peared, but rather that the prominent approaches today are not diametrically opposed to one another, each armed with camps of followers and mounds of empir- ical studies. In fact, the most prominent alternative approach, Sabatier’s Advocacy

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Assignment on joint staff case study research essay help

Concept of Policy Subsystems melbourne essay help: melbourne essay help

Two page for each questions

Your essay should demonstrate that you understand the relevant concepts as covered in lecture and in the readings.

Integrate specific names, terms, and examples to enrich your essay.

Possible Question 1

Scenario: You are chief advisor to recently elected Representative I. Nolittle. Nolittle has two policy objectives: 1) to save the taxpayers money by reducing the number of new F-35 fighter aircraft the military will buy over the next five years, estimated to cost $90 M each, and 2) to allow the harvest of trees on federal land without interference by distractions, such as environmental values.

Inform Nolittle about how the policy system generally works, especially regarding the role of interest groups and the interactions of groups, committees, and agencies in policy subsystems or subgovernments.

Specifically, write a memo to Representative Nolittle that does the following:

1) Explains the concept of policy subsystems or subgovernments. Describes the nature of the two models of subsystems covered in class and in the readings. Note how they may change over time.

2) Use military procurement and timber/public lands policy to demonstrate how policy subsystems can work.

Possible Question 2

Imagine you are a policy analyst for one of the following groups: 1) Education Advancement Today (“EAT”), which seeks to reduce student debt and the student cost of higher education, or 2) Help Investers Today (“HIT”), which seeks to eliminate regulations in the finance industry.

Write a memo to either MOM’s or to HIT’s newly-hired director that:

1) Explains the meaning and policy implications of the terms:

1 “event: occurrences with social consequences”,

2 “condition : situation accepted as inevitable or unchangeable”,

3“problem: sitions that people seek to change”, and

4“public problem : situations people seek to have the government help to change”;

2) Uses the above terms to develop a strategy to direct political and/or public attention to your issue;

3) Explains what a “problem broker” is induvial, group, and coalitions that seek to promote their policy objectives by directing political attention towards specific issues and controlling how those issues are viewed.

and how they might promote your policy goals;

3) Considers whether this coming year will be a good year to advance your cause, and why or why not.

Possible question 3 is on the next page.Possible Question 3

A problem or issue’s characteristics can help explain how much attention it receives since they can either automatically draw attention to the topic, or make it easier for interest groups to direct public attention to it.

List, explain, and provide examples of the four of the six characteristics identified in class that can help draw attention to a problem.

1- Effete of issues

2- Analogous nature

3- Spillover

4- Symbolic importance

Explain in significant detail what Deborah Stone says about the use of “numbers” ( in the reading PDF) as ways to influence the public agenda.

Based on this approach, identify an issue you think will receive extensive attention in 2019 and one that will receive very little. Explain your choices.

Three possible extra credit terms (will be worth 2 points, One will be chosen at the time of the test.):

Punctuated equilibrium

Negative externalities

Systemic v. Institutional agenda

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Policy Response Questions computer science essay help: computer science essay help

Please provide an answer for the questions below using the assigned readings for Weeks 1 and 2 listed in the course syllabus. Be sure to cite course reading materials.

The minimum word count for the response is 1500 words and must not exceed 2000 words (approximately 6-8 pages – excluding cover page and references section).

Provide a cover page with your name, course information, and a title, and include a references section on a separate page. The document must be double spaced with 12 point font, one inch margins, and use proper grammar/spelling.  Also, please label each question being answered (e.g., Q-1A). Please do not copy questions. Copied questions will not count towards the word count, but will count towards exceeding the maximum length.

Please include at least three sources from the assigned readings among your references and make sure you incorporate these into your answers through the use of citations and concrete examples. Also, please include at least two additional sources of information from outside the course, and make sure that a least one of these is a peer reviewed journal article.

Please see this link which contains information on sourcing and identifying peer reviewed journal articles: https://guides.library.oregonstate.edu/c.php?g=285842&p=1906145 

You are encouraged to use additional sources of information among your references and incorporate these into your answers. These can be from the assigned course materials or from outside sources.

All work must use APA style format for citations and references. See: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_overview_and_workshop.html.

Q-1A. The readings for week 1 cover the various “driving forces” of international environmental politics and policy. Please provide an overview of these driving forces including different interpretations and perspectives of the trends.

Q-1B. While many scientists view the trends of these driving forces as detrimental to the environment (e.g., ozone depletion, climate change, polluted oceans, loss of biodiversity, etc.), other observers have emerged to challenge this pessimistic scenario and have claimed “things are getting better” (e.g. Lomborg). What, in your opinion, is the cause for such different conclusions? What about yourself,  do you believe things are getting better or worse? What evidence would you identify that supports your position? If you believe things are getting worse, is there any hope for planet Earth according to the readings for this week?

Q-2A. The readings for week 2 provide a general perspective on international cooperation in environmental policy. Briefly discuss the dynamics of who participates (e.g., countries) and why they cooperate (i.e., the context or incentives for cooperation).

Q-2B. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Links to an external site.) sets an overall framework and agreements for intergovernmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by climate change (e.g. Kyoto Protocol/Treaty). It recognizes that the climate system is a shared resource whose stability can be affected by industrial activities and other sources of emissions of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases:

Read: https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf (Links to an external site.)

While treaties take effect in signatory countries such as the members of the European Union and Russia, one of the largest contributors of greenhouse gases in the world, the United States, refuses to sign. Using the readings from week 2, discuss the reason(s) for the lack of participation of some countries (e.g. The United States). What conditions do you think should be present that would promote greater participation?

EU Perspective (search for related issues):

https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/negotiations_en (Links to an external site.)

Please read all questions carefully and answer all of them completely. Be sure to provide an adequate explanation and supporting arguments for all of your answers. Don’t forget to back up your arguments with concrete examples from the assigned readings or other sources you may have consulted, and please remember to provide adequate citations for any references used. Your answers must demonstrate that you have read and understood the assigned readings.

You must use APA style citation format for all citations and references, and don’t forget to include a list of references in the appropriate format. If you are unfamiliar with APA formatting.

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Explanations of Political Participation Essay essay help

Political Science Research Paper grad school essay help: grad school essay help

Final Paper

Section Two

[Of the five sections of a political science research paper, the structure of Section Two is the most variable. The heading in Section Two will be specific to the content of the chapter, as it is related to the research topic and proposed study. However, the following elements should be included in Section Two, regardless of the subsections.

Section Two is a presentation of a review of the literature. The researcher accomplishes three things during the process of developing Section Two:

a) the researcher develops subject matter expertise in the topics relating to his/her research,

b) the researcher identifies and substantiates a gap in the body of knowledge (your topic) that will be addressed by the study, and

c) the researcher develops a conceptual framework which informs the research design.

Section Two shall contain the following content (although headings may vary):

The introduction to Section Two tells the reader what the chapter is to be about, and tells the reader how the chapter will be organized. According to APA sixth edition, this section should not have a heading.

*Review and Discussion of the Literature (the exact headings will depend on the content)

The researcher presents and discusses key literature related to his/her topic and makes the connection between these and his/her research topic. The sections in the Review and Discussion of the Literature should demonstrate the researcher’s mastery of the literature in his/her area(s) of study. The subsections throughout Section 2 should be descriptive of the material being shared.

*A synthesis of the literature should also be included. The synthesis is a purposeful organization of information that reflects the researcher’s critical thinking that supports the direction that this specific research takes. The synthesis provides the foundation for the conceptual framework which is a narrative (and visual, if desired) picture of how the literature examination and subsequent critical thinking combine to form a “whole” which represents the researcher’s intellectual approach to the study. As a result, it is clear to both the researcher and readers how the topics discussed are seen in relationship to each other from the unique perspective of the researcher, and supported by the literature. This synthesis may be presented in a variety of ways, but often is topological or chronological, or both.]

Conceptual Framework

[This section should discuss, in narrative form, how the researcher sees the relationships between, and orientation of, the theories, models, constructs, contexts, researcher assumptions, etc. explored during the literature review and how these fit together in the researcher’s thinking. This provides the researcher with an opportunity to craft his/her own unique approach to the research or to confirm that their proposed research matches existing research by presenting a coherent logic for the proposed research. It is highly recommended that a graphic representation accompany the narrative in this section. If using another author’s conceptual framework (because it completely matches yours) please attribute the framework. If using a graphic from another author that completely matches yours you must have written permission from the copyright holder to reprint their material.

Summary of Literature Review

The researcher provides a summary of the key elements of Section Two and provides a brief transition to Section Three.

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The coming of the Leviathan my assignment essay help london

5

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN

How state-level societies differ from tribal ones; “pristine” versus competitive

state formation; different theories of state formation, including some dead

ends like irrigation, leading to an explanation of why states emerged early on

in some parts of the world and not in others

State-level societies differ from tribal ones in several important respects. 1

First, they possess a centralized source of authority, whether in the form of a king, president, or prime minister. This source of authority deputizes a

hierarchy of subordinates who are capable, at least in principle, of enforcing

rules on the whole of the society. The source of authority trumps all others

with.in its territory, which means that it is sovereign. All administrative lev­ els, such as lesser chiefs, prefects, or administrators, derive their decision­

making authority from their formal association with the sovereign.

Second, that source of authority is backed by a monopoly of the legiti­

mate means of coercion, in the form of an army and/or police. The power of the state is sufficient to prevent segments, tribes, or regions from seced­

ing or otherwise separating themselves. (This is what distinguishes a state

from a chiefdom.)

Third, the authority of the state is territorial rather than kin based. Thus France was not really a state in Merovingian times when it was led by

a king of the Franks rather than the king of France. Since membership in

a state does not depend on kinship, it can grow much larger than a tribe.

Fourth, states are far more stratified and unequal than tribal societies, with the ruler and his administrative staff often separating themselves off

from the rest of the society. In some cases they become a hereditary elite.

Slavery and serfdom, while not unknown in tribal societies, expand enor­

mously under the aegis of states.

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 81

Finally, states are legitimated by much more elaborate forms of religious

belief, with a separate priestly class as its guardian. Sometimes that priestly class takes power directly, in which case the state is a theocracy; sometimes

It is controlled by the secular ruler, in which case it is labeled caesaropapist;

and sometimes it coexists with secular rule under some form of power

sharing. With the advent ofd1e state, we exit out of kinship and into the realm of

political development proper. The next few chapters will look closely at how

China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe made the transition out of

kinship and tribalism and into more impersonal state institutions. Once states come into being, kinship becomes an obstade to political development,

since it threatens to return political relationships to the small-scale, personal

1 ies of tribal societies. It is therefore not enough merely to develop a state; the

state must avoid retribalization or what I label repatrimonialization. Not all societies around the world made this transition to statehood on

their own. Most of Melanesia consisted of acephalous tribal societies (that is, lacking centralized authority) prior to the arrival of European colonial

powers in the nineteenth century, as did roughly half of sub-Saharan Af­ rica, and parts of South and Southeast Asia.2 The fact that these regions

had no long history of statehood very much affected their development

prospects after they achieved independence in the second half of the

twentieth century, especially when compared to colonized parts of East Asia where state traditions were deeply embedded. Why China developed

n state at a very early point in its history, while Papua New Guinea did not,

despite the latter having been settled by human beings for a longer period

of time, is one of the questions I hope to answer.

THEORIES OF STATE FORMATION

Anthropologists and archaeologists distinguish between what they call

“pristine” and “competitive” state formation. Pristine state formation is

lhe initial emergence of a state (or chiefdom) out of a tribal-level society.

Competitive formation occurs only after the first state gets going. States are usually so much better organized and powerful than the surrounding

tribal-level societies that they either conquer and absorb them, or else are

emulated by tribal neighbors who wish not to be conquered. While there are many historical examples of competitive state formation, no one has

his thesis

PART 1 START

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82 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

ever observed the pristine version, so political philosophers, anthropolo­

gists. and archaeologists can only speculate as to how the first state

or states arose. There are several categories of explanation, including so­

cial contract, irrigation, population pressure, war and violence, and

circumscription.

The State as a Voluntary Social Contract Social contract tl1eorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau were not in the

first instance trying to give empirical accounts of how the state arose. TI1ey

were attempting, rather, to understand a government’s basis of legitimacy.

But it is stiU worth thinking through whether the first states could have arisen

through some form of explicit agreement among tribesmen to establish

centralized authority.

Thomas Hobbes lays out the basic “deal” underlying the state: in return

for giving up the right to do whatever one pleases, the state (or Leviathan)

through its monopoly of force guarantees each citizen basic security. The

state can provide other kinds of public goods as well, like property rights,

roads, currency, uniform weights and measures, and external defense, which

citizens cannot obtain on their own. In return, citizens give the state the

right to tax, conscript, and otherwise demand things of them. Tribal soci­

eties can provide some degree of security, but can provide only limited

public goods because of their lack of centralized authority. So if the state

arose by social contract, we would have to posit that at some point in his­

tory, a tribal group decided voluntarily to delegate dictatorial powers to one

individual to rule over them. The delegation would not be temporary, as

in the election of a tribal chief , but permanent, to the king and all his de­

scendants. And it would have to be on the basis of consensus on the part of

all of the tribal segments, each of which had the option of simply wander­

ing off if it didn’t like the deal.

It seems highly unlikely that the first state arose out of an explicit social

contract if the chief issue motivating it were simply economic, like the

protection of property rights or the provision of public goods. Tribal soci­

eties are egalitarian and, within the context of close-knit kinship groups,

very free. States, by contrast, are coercive, domineering, and hierarchical,

which is why Friedrich Nietzsche called the state the “coldest of all cold

monsters:’ We could imagine a free tribal society delegating authority to a

single dictator only under the most extreme duress, such as the imminent

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 83

danger of invasion and extermination by an outside invader, or to a religious

figure if an epidemic appeared ready to wipe out the community. Roman

dictators were in fact elected in this fashion during the Republic, such as

when the city was threatened by Hannibal after the Battle of Cannae in

216 n.c. But this means that the real driver of state formation is violence

or the threat of violence, making the social contract an efficient rather than a final cause.

The State as a Hydraulic-Engineering Project A variant of the social contract theory, over which a lot of unnecessary ink has been spilled, is Karl Wittfogel’s “hydraulic” theory of the state. Wittfo­

gel, a former Marxist turned anticommunist, expanded on Marx’s theory

of the Asiatic mode of production, providing an economic explanation for

the emergence of dictatorships outside the West. He argued that the rise of the state in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and Mexico was driven by the

need for large-scale irrigation, which could be managed only by a central­

ized bureaucratic state.3

There are many problems with the hydraulic hypothesis. Most early

irrigation projects in regions with nascent states were small and locally

managed. Large engineering efforts like the Grand Canal in China were

undertaken only after a strong state had already been constructed and

thus were effects rather than causes of state formation.4 For Wittfogel’s hypothesis to be true, we would have to imagine a group of tribesmen get­

ting together one day and saying to each other, “We could become a lot

richer if we turned over our cherished freedom to a dictator, who would

be responsible for managing a huge hydraulic-engineering project, the

likes of which the world has never seen before. And we will give up that

freedom not just for the duration of the project, but for all time, because

future generations will need a good project manager as well:’ If this sce­

nario were plausible, the European Union would have turned into a state

long ago.

Population Density The demographer Ester Boserup has argued that population increase and high population densiti.es have been important drivers of technological

.innovation. The dense populations around river systems in Egypt, Meso­

potamia, and China spawned intensive systems of agriculture involving

PART 1 END, PART 2 “State as Voluntary”

PART 3 “Population Density”

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84 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

large-scale irrigation, new higher-yielding crops, and other tools. Popula­ tion density promotes state formation by permitting specialization and a division of labor between elites and nonelite groups. Low-density band­ or tribal-level societies can mitigate conflict simply by moving away from one another, hiving off segments when they find they can’t coexist. Dense populations in newly created urban centers do not have this option. Scar­ city ofland or access to certain key public resources are much more likely to trigger conflicts, which then might require more centralized forms of political authority to control.

But even if higher population density is a necessary condition for state formation, we are still left with two unanswered questions: What causes population density to increase in the first place? And what is the mecha­ nism connecting dense populations with states?

TI,e first question might seem to have a simple Malthusian answer: population increase is brought about by technological innovation such as the agricultural revolution, which greatly increases the carrying capacity of a given piece of land, which then leads parents to have more children. TI1e problem is that a number of hunter-gatherer societies operate well below their local environment’s long-term productive capacity. The New Guinea highlanders and the Amazonian Indians have developed agricul­ ture, but they do not produce the food surpluses of which they are techni­ cally capable. So the mere technological possibility of increased productivity and increased output, and therefore increased population, does not nec­ essarily explain why it actually came about.5 Some anthropologists have suggested that in certain hunter-gatherer societies, increases in food sup­ ply are met with decreasing amounts of work because their members value leisure over work. Inhabitants of agricultural societies may be richer on average, but they also have to work much harder, and the trade-off may not seem appealing. Alternatively, it may simply be the case that hunter­ gatherers are stuck in what economists call a low-level equilibrium trap. That is, they have the technology to plant seeds and shift to agriculture, but the social expectations for sharing surpluses quickly quash private in­ centives to move to higher levels of productivity.6

It could be that the causality here is reversed: people in early societies would not produce a surplus on their own until compelled to do so by rul­ ers who could hold a whip hand over them. TI1e masters, in turn, might not want to work harder themselves but were perfectly happy to compel

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 85

others to do so. TI1e emergence of hierarchy would then be the result not of economic factors but rather of political factors like military conquest or compulsion. The building of the pyramids in Egypt comes to mind.

Hence, population density may not be a final cause of state formation’ but rather an intervening variable that is the product of some other as yet unidentified factor.

States as the Product of Violence and Compulsion The weaknesses and gaps in all of the explanations that are primarily eco­ nomic in focus point to violence as an obvious source of state formation. TI1at is, the transition from tribe to state involves huge .losses in freedom and equality. It is hard to imagine societies giving all this up even for the potentially large gains of irrigation. ‘foe stakes have to be much higher and can be much more readily explained by the threat to life itself posed by organized violence.

We know that virtually all human societies have engaged in violence, particularly at the tribal level. Hierarchy and the state could have emerged when one tribal segment conquered another one and took control of its territory. The requirements of maintaining political control over the con­ quered tribe led the conquerors to establish centralized repressive institu­ tions, which evolved into an administrative bureaucracy of a primitive state. Especially if the tribal groups differ linguistically or ethnically, it is likely that the victor would establish a relationship of dominance over the vanquished, and that class stratification would become entrenched. Even the threat of this kind of conquest by a foreign tribe would encourage tribal groups to establish more permanent, centralized forms of command and control, as happened with the Cheyenne and Pueblo Indians.7

TI1is scenario of a tribe conquering a settled society has unfolded countless times in recorded history, with waves ofTanguts, Khitai, Huns, Rurzhen, Aryans, Mongols, Vikings, and Germans founding states on this basis. 1be only question, then, is whether this was how the very first states got their start. Centuries of tribal warfare in places Uke Papua New Guinea and southern Sudan have not produced state-level societies. Anthropolo­ gists have argued that tribal societies have leveling mechanisms to redis­ tribute power after conflict; the Nuer simply absorb their enemies rather than rule them. So it appears that still other causal factors are needed to explain the rise of states. It was only when violent tribal groups spilled out

Part 4, “States as the Product of Violence”

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86 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

of the steppes of inner Asia or the Arabian desert or the mountains of Afghanistan that more centralized political units formed.

Circumscription and Other Geographical-Environmental Factors The anthropologist Robert Carneiro has noted that although warfare may be a universal and necessary condition for state formation, it is not a suffi­ cient one. He argues that it is only when increases in productivity take place within a geographically circumscribed area like a river valley, or when other hostile tribes effectively circumscribe another tribe’s territory, that it is possible to explain the emergence of hierarchical states. In uncircum­ scribed, low-population-density situations, weaker tribes or individuals can simply run away. But in places like the Nile valley, bounded by deserts and the ocean, or in the mountain valleys of Peru, that were bounded by deserts, jungles, and high mountains, this option didn’t exist.8 Circum­ scription would also explain why higher productivity led to greater popu­ lation density, since people didn’t have the option of moving away.

The tribes of the New Guinea highlands have agriculture and live in circumscribed valleys, so those factors alone cannot explain the rise of states. Absolute scale might also be important. Mesopotamia, the Nile valley, and the Valley of Mexico were all relatively large agricultural areas that were

nonetheless circumscribed by mountains, deserts, and oceans. Larger and more concentrated military formations can be raised, and can project their power over larger areas, particularly if they have domesticated horses or camels. So it was not just circumscription, but also the size and accessibility of the area being circumscribed, that determined whether a state would

form. Circumscription would help early state builders in another way as well, by protecting them from external enemies outside the river valley or island while ever-larger forces were being marshaled. Across Oceania, chiefdoms and protostates were formed only on the larger islands like Fiji, Tonga, and Hawaii, not on the smaller ones like the Solomon Islands, Van­ uatu, or the Trobriands. New Guinea is a large island, but it is extremely mountainous and cut up into a myriad of tiny microenvironments.

The State as the Product of Charismatic Authority Archaeologists who speculate about the origins of politics tend to be biased in favor of materialistic explanations like environment and level of tech­

nology, rather than cultural factors like religion, simply because we know more about the material environment of early societies.9 But it seems ex-

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 87

tremely likely that religious ideas were critical to early state formation, since they could effectively legitimate the transition to hierarchy and loss of free­ dom enjoyed by tribal societies. Max Weber distinguished what he called charismatic authority from either its traditional or modern-rational vari­ ants.10 The Greek word charisma means “touched by God”; a charismatic

leader asserts authority not because he is elected by his fellow tribesmen for leadership ability but because he is believed to be a designee of God.

Religious authority and military prowess go hand in hand. Religious authority allows a particular tribal leader to solve the large-scale collective

action problem of uniting a group of autonomous tribes. To a much larger degree than economic benefit, religious authority can explain why a free tribal people would be willing to make a permanent delegation of authority

to a single individual and that individual’s kin group. TI1e leader can then use that authority to create a centralized military machine that can conquer recalcitrant tribes as well as ensure domestic peace and security, which then reinforces the leader’s religious authority in a positive-feedback loop. The only problem, however, is that you need a new form of religion, one that can overcome the inherent scale limitations of ancestor worship and other kinds of particularistic forms of worship.

There is a concrete historical case of this process unfolding, which was the rise of the first Arab state under the Patriarchal and Umayyad caliph­

ates. Tribal peoples inhabited the Arabian peninsula for many centuries, living on the borders of state-level societies like Egypt, Persia, and Rome/ Byzantium. TI1e harshness of thei.r environment and its unsuitability for agriculture explajned why they were never conquered, and thus why they never felt military pressure to form themselves into a centralized state. They operated as merchants and intermediaries between nearby settled societies but were incapable of producing a substantial surplus on their own.

111ings changed dramatically, however, with the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in A.O. 570 in the Arabian town of Mecca. According to Mus­ lim tradition, Muhammad received his first revelation from God in his fortieth year and began preaching to the Meccan tribes. He and his follow­ ers were persecuted in Mecca, so they moved to Medina in 622. He was asked to mediate among the squabbling Medinan tribes, and did so by drafting the so-called Constitution of Medina that defined a universal umma, or community of believers, that transcended tribal loyalties. Mu­ hammad’s polity did not yet have all the characteristics of a true state, but it made a break with kinship-based systems not on the basis of conquest

Part 5 “Circumscription”

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88 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

but through the writing of a social contract underpinned by the prophet’s charismatic authority. After several years of fighting, the new Muslim pol­ ity gained adherents a11d conquered Mecca, uniting central Arabia into a single state-level society.

NormaUy i11 conquest states the lineage of the founding tribal leader evolves into the ruling dynasty. This didn’t happen in Muhammad’s case because he had only a daughter, Fatima, and no sons. Leadership of the new state thus passed to one of Muhammad’s companions in the Umayyad clan, a parallel segment in Muhammad’s Quraysh tribe. The Umayyads did evolve into a dynasty, and the Umayyad state under Uthman and Mu’awiya quickly went on to conquer Syria, Egypt, and Iraq, imposing Arab mle over these preexisting state-level societies.’ L

There is no clearer illustration of the importance of ideas to politics than the emergence of an Arab state under the Prophet Muhammad. The Arab tribes played an utterly marginal role in world history until Lhal poinl; it was only MuJ,ammad’s charismatic authority that allowed them to unify and project their power throughout the Middle East and North Africa. The tribes had no economic base to speal< of; they gained economic power through the interaction of religious ideas and military organization, and then were able to take over agricultural societies that did produce sur­ pluses. 12 This was not a pure example of pristine state formation, since the Arab tribes had the examples of established states such as Persia and By­ zantium all around them that they could emulate and eventually take over. Moreover, the power of tribalism remained so strong that subsequent Arab states were never able to overcome it fully or to create state bureaucracies not heavily influenced by tribal politics (see chapter 13). ‘fois forced later Arab and Turkish dynasties to resort to extraordinary measures to free themselves from the influence of kinship and tribal ties, in the form of slave armies and administrators recruited entirely from foreigners.

While the fou11ding of the first Arab state is a particularly striking il­ lustration of the poUtical power of religious ideas, virtually every other state has relied on religion to legitimate itself. The founding myths of the Greek, Roman, Hindu, and Chinese states aJl trace the regime’s ancestry back to a divinity, or at least to a semidivine hero. Political power in early states cannot be understood apart from the religious rituals that the ruler controlled and used to legitimate his power. Consider, for example, the following ode to the founder of China’s Shang Dynasty, from the Book of Odes:

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN

Heaven commissioned the swallow To descend and give birth to the [father of our] Shang [His descendants] dwelt in the land of Yin and became great.

{Then] long ago Ti appointed the martial T’ang

To regulate the boundaries through the four quarters . . .

Another poem asserts:

Profoundly wise were {the lords of] Shang And long had there appeared the omens [ of the dynasty};

When the water of the deluge spread vast abroad,

Yu arranged and divided the regions of the land. 13

89

We seem to be getting closer to a fuller explanation for pristine state formation. We need the confluence of several factors. First, there needs to be a sufficient abundance of resources to permit the creation of surpluses above what is necessary for subsistence. TI1is abundance can be natural: the Pacific Northwest was so fuJl of game and fish tl1at the hunter-gatherer­ level societies there were able to generate chiefdoms, if not states. But more often abundance is made possible through technological advances like agriculture. Second, the absolute scale of the society has to be suffi­ ciently large to permit the emergence of a rudimentary division of labor and a ruling elite. Third, that population needs to be physically constrained so that it increases in density when technological opportunities present themselves, and in order to make sure that subjects cannot run away when coerced. And finally, tribal groups have to be motivated to give up their freedom to the authority of a state. This can come about through the threat of physical extinction by other, increasingly well-organized groups. Or it can result from the charismatic authority of a religious leader. Taken to­ gether, these appear to be plausible factors leading to the emergence of a state in places like the Nile valley. 14

Thomas Hobbes argued that the state or Leviathan came about as a result of a rational social contract among individuals who wanted to solve the problem of endemic violence and end the state of war. At the beginning of chapter 2 I suggested that there was a fundamental fallacy in this, and all liberal social contract theories, insofar as it presupposed a presocial state of nature in which human beings lived as isolated individuals. Such a state of primordial individualism never existed; human beings are social

Part 6, Conclusion

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90 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

by nature and do not have to make a self-interested decision to organize

themselves into groups. The particular form that social organization takes

is frequently the result of rational deliberation at higher levels of develop­

ment. But at lower ones, it evolves spontaneously out of the building blocks

created by human biology.

But there is a flip side to the Hobbesean fallacy. Just as there was never

a clean transition from an anomic state of nature to an orderly civil society,

so there was never a complete solution to the problem of human violence.

Human beings cooperate to compete, and they compete to cooperate. The

birth of the Leviathan did not permanently solve the problem of violence;

it simply moved it to a higher level. Instead of tribal segments fighting one

another, it was now states that were the primary protagonists in increasingly

large-scale wars. TI1e first state to emerge could create a victor’s peace but

over time faced rivals as new states borrowing the same political techniques

rose to challenge its predominance.

WHY WEREN’T STATES UNIVERSAL?

We are now in a position to understand why states failed to emerge in

certain parts of the world like Africa and Oceania, and why tribal societies

persist in regions like Afghanistan, lndia, and the uplands of Southeast Asia.

The political scientist Jeffrey Herbst has argued that the absence of indig­

enous states in many parts of Africa flows from the confluence of several

familiar factors: “The fundamental problem facing state-builders in Africa­

be they colonial kings, colonial governors, or presidents in the indepen­

dent era-has been to project authority over inhospitable territories that

contain relatively low densities of people.” 15 He points out that, contrary

to popular imagination, only 8 percent of the continent’s land has a tropi­

cal climate, and that 50 percent receives inadequate rainfall to support

regular agriculture. Though the human species got its start in Africa, hu­

man beings have thrived better in other parts of the world. Population

densities had always been low throughout the continent until the arrival

of modern agriculture and medicine; it was not until 1975 that Africa reached the population density that Europe enjoyed in the year 1500.

Parts of Africa that are exceptions to this generalization, like the fertile

Great Lakes region and the Great Rift Val.ley, have supported much higher

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 91

population densities and indeed saw the early emergence of centralized

states.

The physical geography of Africa has also made the projection of power

difficult. The continenl has few rivers that are navigable over long stretches

(again, exceptions to th.is rule like the lower Nile support this point, since

it was home to one of the world’s first states). The great deserts of the Sahel are a huge barrier to botJ, trade and conquest, in contrast to the less arid

steppe lands of Eurasia. Those mounted Muslim warriors who did manage

to cross this obstacle soon found their horses dying of encephalitis from

the tsetse fly, which explains why the Muslim parts of West Africa are lim­

ited to the northern parts of Nigeria , Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, and the like. 16

In the parts of Africa that are covered by tropical forests, the difficulty of

building and maintaining roads was an important obstacle to state build­

ing. The hard-surfaced roads the Romans built in Britain were still being used more than a mil.lennium after the col.lapse of Roman power there; few

roads can last more than a few seasons in the tropics.

There are relatively few regions in Africa that are clearly circumscribed

by physical geography. This has made it extraordinarily difficult for terri­ torial rulers to push their administration into the hinterland and to control

populations. Low population density has meant thal new land was usually

available; people could respond to the threat of conquest simply by re­

treating farther into the bush. State consolidation based on wars of conquest never took place in Africa to the extent il did in Europe simply because

the motives and possibilities for conquest were much more limited. 17 This

meant, according to Herbst, that the transition from a tribal to a territorial

conception of power with clearly conceived administrative boundaries of the sort that existed in Europe did not take place. 18 TI1e emergence of

states in parts of the continent that were circumscribed, like the Nile val­

ley, is an exception fully consistent with the underlying rule.

The reason for the absence of states in aboriginal Australia may be

similar to that which pertains to Africa. Australia is for the most part an

extremely arid and undifferentiated continent; despite the length of time

that human beings have lived there, population density has always been

extremely low. The absence of agriculture and of naturally circumscribed regions may explain the failure of political structures above the level of

tribe and Lineage to emerge.

TI1e siluation in Melanesia is rather different. The region consists en-

Part 6 conclusion end

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92 THE ORIGINS OF POLITICAL ORDER

tirely of islands, so there is natural circumscription; in addition, agriculture

there was invented long ago. Here the problem is one of scale and the dif­ ficulties of power projection, given the mountainous nature of most of

the islands. The mountain valleys into which the islands are divided are

small and capable of supporting only a limited population, and it is ex­

tremely difficult to project power over long distances. As noted earlier,

the larger islands with more extensive fertile plains, such as Fiji and Ha­

waii, did see the emergence of chiefdoms and states.

Mountains also explain the persistence of tribal forms of organization

in many of the world’s upland regions, including Afghanistan; the Kurdish regions of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria; the highlands of Laos and Viet­

nam; and Pakistan’s tribal agencies. Mountains simply make these regions

very difficult for states and their armies to conquer and hold. Turks, Mon­

gols, and Persians, followed by the British, Russians, and now the Ameri­ cans and NATO forces have all tried to subdue and pacify Afghanistan’s

tribes and to build a centralized state there, with very modest success.

Understanding the conditions under which pristine state formation

occurred is interesting because it helps to define some of the material con­ ditions under which states emerge. But in the end, there are too many

interacting factors to be able to develop one strong, predictive theory of

when and how states formed. Some of the explanations for their presence

or absence begin to sound like Kipling Just So stories. For example, in

parts of Melanesia Lhe environmental conditions are quite similar to those of

Fiji or Tonga-large islands with agriculture supporting potentially dense

populations-where no state emerged. Perhaps the reason has to do with

religion, or particular accidents of unrecoverable history. It is not clear how important it is to develop such a theory, however,

since the vast majority of states around the world were the products of

competitive rather than pristine state formation. Many states were formed,

moreover, in historical ti mes for which we have a written record. Chinese

state formation, in particular, began extremely early, somewhat after Egypt

and Mesopotamia, and contemporaneously with the rise of states around

the Mediterranean and in the New World. There are extensive written and

archaeological records of early Chinese history, moreover, that give us a far more contextualized sense of Chinese politics. But most important, the

state that emerged in China was far more modern in Max Weber’s sense

than any of its counterparts elsewhere. The Chinese created a uniform,

multilevel administrative bureaucracy, something that never happened in

THE COMING OF THE LEVIATHAN 93

Greece or Rome. The Chinese developed an explicit antifamilistic political

doctrine, and its early rulers sought to undermine the power of entrenched families and kinship groups .in favor of impersonal administration. This

state engaged in a nation-building project that created a powerful and

uniform culture, a culture powerful enough to withstand two millennia

of poJjtical breakdown and external invasion. The Chinese politi.cal and cultural space extended over a far larger population than that of the Ro­

mans. TI1e Romans ruled an empire, limiting citizenship initially to a rela­

tively small number of people on the Italian peninsula. While that empire

eventually stretched from Britain to North Africa to Germany to Syria, it

consisted of a heterogeneous collection of peoples who were allowed a

considerable degree of self-rule. By contrast, even though the Chinese

monarch called himself an emperor rather than a king, he ruled over

something that looked much more like a kingdom or even a state in its uniformity.

The Chinese state was centralized, bureaucratic, and enormously des­

potic. Marx and Wittfogel recognized this characteristic of Chinese poli­

tics by their use of terms like “the Asiatic mode of production” and

“Oriental despotism:· What I argue in succeeding chapters is that so-called

Oriental despotism is nothing other than the precocious emergence of a

politically modern state. In China, the state was consolidated before other

social actors could institutionalize themselves, actors like a hereditary,

territorially based aristocracy, an organized peasantry, cities based on a

merchant class, churches, or other autonomous groups. Unlike in Rome,

the Chinese military remained firmly under the state’s control and never

posed an independent threat to its political authority. This initial skewing of the balance of power was then locked in for a long period, since the

mighty state could act to prevent the emergence of alternative sources of

power, both economic and political. No dynamic modern economy

emerged until the twentieth century that could upset this distribution of

power. Strong foreign enemies periodically conquered parts or the whole

of the country, but these tended to be tribal peoples with less-developed

cultures, who were quickly absorbed and S.i.nified by their own subjects.

Not until the arrival of the Europeans in the nineteenth century did China really have to contend with foreign models that challenged its own state­

centered path of development.

The Chinese pattern of political development differs from that of tJ1e

West insofar as the development of a precociously modern state was not

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Discussion on Ethical Issues Among Military Ranks college essay help online free

Running head: ETHICAL ISSUE AMONG MILITARY RANKS 2

ETHICAL ISSUE AMONG MILITARY RANKS 2

Ethical Issues Among Military Ranks

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School

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Date

Ethical Issues Among Military Ranks

Ethics in the military has been an issue of concern not only in the United States but the entire world. Military operations become marred with diverse issues that raise ethical concerns (Staal & DeVries, 2018). The United States military has witnessed cases of unethical problems that have challenged professionalism among the ranks. Ethics defines military conduct principles and legal requirements for military professionals. General performances and conducts in military organizations raise ethical issues in military operations. When addressing ethics in the military, decision making is an aspect that cannot be underrated. Military personnel continuously face situations that pose an ethical dilemma. Deciding on such a position requires a high degree of caution. Professionals in the military have made decisions that have raised ethical questions based on the motive and the results from the decisions made (Kem, 2016). Such decisions are, therefore, subject to question due to the adverse outcomes associated with such decisions. Professional, ethical decision making needs observing with regard to military ethics. Decision making, therefore, form essential components in the co-text of military ethics.

Performance appraisal also forms an essential issue in military ethics. Military organizations continually evaluate and review personnel performances and review them regularly. The development of individual development plans is subject to professional ethics. In reviewing performances, favoring some individuals and conflicts of interest may arise. Promotions may also be biased where senior officers may promote junior officials without considering the merits and qualifications required for such promotions (Thompson, & Jetly, 2014). Military officials are faced with an ethical dilemma in decision making because they have to balance between the public interest, professionalism, and personal security.

Problem Statement

Military organizations have failed to honor professional ethical guidelines. In these circumstances, there is a need to evaluate and assess the ethical issues that create performance challenges in military organizations. In the United States, there have been several cases of unethical behaviors in the military. High-rank military officials have abused their power by awarding tenders to some companies they have interest in. Some have awarded tenders to their own companies or companies belonging to their relatives. Such aspects create ethical concerns, and the individuals are subjects to laws prosecution for failing to honor military professionalism. Fraud has also been a big concern in military ethics. Military professionals have used government properties and funds fraudulently (Sullivan & Wilson, 2017). Such fraudulent acts have indicated a big failure in military ethics. Military personnel on the battlefield also face various aspects of the ethical dilemma. They are supposed to observe human rights and international treaties. While simultaneously, they must protect their country from external threats, including terrorism. Besides, they have to defend themselves against attacks from enemies. Executing these obligations puts them at risk of not observing some moral and ethical issues.

References

Kem, J. D. (2016). Ethical Decision Making: Using the ‘Ethical Triangle,.’ In 2016 CGSC Ethics Symposium.

Staal, M. A., & DeVries, M. R. (2018). Military operational psychology. Psychological services.

Sullivan, B. A., & Wilson, J. M. (2017). An empirical examination of product counterfeiting crime impacting the US military. Trends in Organized Crime, 20(3-4), 316-337.

Thompson, M. M., & Jetly, R. (2014). Battlefield ethics training: integrating ethical scenarios in high-intensity military field exercises. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 23668.

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Our essay writers are graduates with diplomas, bachelor, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college diploma. When assigning your order, we match the paper subject with the area of specialization of the writer.

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Assignment Instructions on the Introduction and the Problem Statement college essay help online free: college essay help online free

Instructions

Assignment Instructions: The Introduction and the Problem Statement (see attachment below) are provided as an aid to assist with this assignment. No work is required on the Intro and problem statement.

Please provide the following:

1. Research Question(s) and Strategy (1 page) 2. Literature Review (3–4 pages) 3. Reference List/Page

1. Research Question(s) and Strategy:

Provide at least one guiding question (1–3 required) and discuss the resources you will use to examine the issue (Strategy). A guiding question (or research question) describes the purpose of your essay. The question(s) is/are strongly tied to the broad topic and the issue you have identified in the problem statement.

This section will be followed by a literature review addressing the topic and problem. You will reference current published materials (doctrine, peer-reviewed articles, etc.) to explain what is known about the issue. Provide an overview of the strategies you will use to identify relevant and current resources related to the topic. Identify at least two strategies you will employ to locate resources.

2. Literature Review:

Conduct a literature review of seven (7) or more scholarly or doctrinal resources related to the topic and problem you have established for your capstone project. The literature review should be a discussion of the related literature, organized by topic or themes (not a list of sources).

A literature review includes synthesis, analysis, and critique of scholarly articles, textbooks, doctrinal manuals, or other sources. For more information, read Chapters 5 and 6 of Succeeding with Your Literature Review: A Handbook for Students by Dr. Paul Oliver.

3. Update Reference List/Page

Ethical Issues

Among Military Ranks.docx

Running head: ETHICAL ISSUE AMONG MILITARY RANKS 2

ETHICAL ISSUE AMONG MILITARY RANKS 2

Ethical Issues Among Military Ranks

Students Name

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Date

Ethical Issues Among Military Ranks

Ethics in the military has been an issue of concern not only in the United States but the entire world. Military operations become marred with diverse issues that raise ethical concerns (Staal & DeVries, 2018). The United States military has witnessed cases of unethical problems that have challenged professionalism among the ranks. Ethics defines military conduct principles and legal requirements for military professionals. General performances and conducts in military organizations raise ethical issues in military operations. When addressing ethics in the military, decision making is an aspect that cannot be underrated. Military personnel continuously face situations that pose an ethical dilemma. Deciding on such a position requires a high degree of caution. Professionals in the military have made decisions that have raised ethical questions based on the motive and the results from the decisions made (Kem, 2016). Such decisions are, therefore, subject to question due to the adverse outcomes associated with such decisions. Professional, ethical decision making needs observing with regard to military ethics. Decision making, therefore, form essential components in the co-text of military ethics.

Performance appraisal also forms an essential issue in military ethics. Military organizations continually evaluate and review personnel performances and review them regularly. The development of individual development plans is subject to professional ethics. In reviewing performances, favoring some individuals and conflicts of interest may arise. Promotions may also be biased where senior officers may promote junior officials without considering the merits and qualifications required for such promotions (Thompson, & Jetly, 2014). Military officials are faced with an ethical dilemma in decision making because they have to balance between the public interest, professionalism, and personal security.

Problem Statement

Military organizations have failed to honor professional ethical guidelines. In these circumstances, there is a need to evaluate and assess the ethical issues that create performance challenges in military organizations. In the United States, there have been several cases of unethical behaviors in the military. High-rank military officials have abused their power by awarding tenders to some companies they have interest in. Some have awarded tenders to their own companies or companies belonging to their relatives. Such aspects create ethical concerns, and the individuals are subjects to laws prosecution for failing to honor military professionalism. Fraud has also been a big concern in military ethics. Military professionals have used government properties and funds fraudulently (Sullivan & Wilson, 2017). Such fraudulent acts have indicated a big failure in military ethics. Military personnel on the battlefield also face various aspects of the ethical dilemma. They are supposed to observe human rights and international treaties. While simultaneously, they must protect their country from external threats, including terrorism. Besides, they have to defend themselves against attacks from enemies. Executing these obligations puts them at risk of not observing some moral and ethical issues.

References

Kem, J. D. (2016). Ethical Decision Making: Using the ‘Ethical Triangle,.’ In 2016 CGSC Ethics Symposium.

Staal, M. A., & DeVries, M. R. (2018). Military operational psychology. Psychological services.

Sullivan, B. A., & Wilson, J. M. (2017). An empirical examination of product counterfeiting crime impacting the US military. Trends in Organized Crime, 20(3-4), 316-337.

Thompson, M. M., & Jetly, R. (2014). Battlefield ethics training: integrating ethical scenarios in high-intensity military field exercises. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 23668.

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Political spectrum Essay instant essay help

an analysis essay comparing political spectrum.  Analyze Political Ideology

Read the article by Timothy Ferris, “Conservative is not Opposite Liberal, That’s Totalitarianism”(also available online (Links to an external site.)). Using the book and the internet, construct and analyze political spectra

Draw a one-dimensional political spectrum and label the spectrum using one of the following:

use political parties to detail the spectrum (Libertarians, Democrats, Republicans, Green Party, Tea Party/Reform Party, Progressives/Liberals, Conservatives, Fascists, Communists, and Socialists)
OR, use political topics to detail the spectrum (economics, power, equality and hierarchy, liberalism, democracy, etc)
OR, use political issues to detail the spectrum (abortion, same-sex rights, gender politics, guns, law enforcement, environment, voting, budget, morality, etc)

you can hand-draw and scan the diagram
you can use software to construct the diagram
Next, Draw a two-dimensional political spectrum (like Ferris) and label the same parties/issues as above on this spectrum

you can use Ferris’ diagram, someone else’s, or your own 2-D spectrum or shape
if you use someone else’s idea from the internet, give them credit for their diagram

Finally, compose an essay that introduces, explains, and analyzes both spectra.

explain each spectra and how it works
compare and contrast the two spectra
in the conclusion determine the usefulness of each spectrum, or which spectrum is better

Notes

Feel free to be unique with your 2-D diagram
use essay structure, introduce and source content where necessary
introduce content before comparing and analyzing

Assignment is graded on quality of analysis in the essay and clarity/presentation of diagrams
SAMPLE THESIS:

In order to better understand U.S. political ideology, political spectra will be introduced and analyzed.  Political issues and political parties will be placed on a 1-D and a 2-D spectrum.  These spectra will be compared, ultimately leading to a determination of which spectra is more useful for understanding U.S. political issues and parties.

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United States politics Essay scholarship essay help: scholarship essay help

Please watch the video https://youtu.be/0meqcKTAcMU  , Write 4-5 sentences and help me to answer on the discussion question:

Should the Westboro Baptist Church be permitted to engage in this form of speech at such private and intimate moments for families that lost a loved one in combat? 

You don’t necessarily have to agree with the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court.

In the article, we learn that the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protects groups that organize anti-gay protests outside military funerals.  Recently, The Westboro Baptist Church based in Topeka, Kansas, received media attention for actively attending military funerals for U.S. soldiers that were killed in action in order to express their views.

The Westboro Baptist Church (WBC) is an independent Baptist church known for its extreme stance against homosexuality and its protest activities, which include picketing at funerals for fallen members of our military and desecrating the American flag.  The church is described by many as a hate group.  In addition to anti-gay protests at military funerals, the organization pickets other celebrity funerals that are likely to get it media attention.

As they have at hundreds of funerals, the Westboro members hold signs with provocative messages, including “Thank God for dead soldiers,” `’You’re Going to Hell,” `’God Hates the USA/Thank God for 9/11,” and one that combined the U.S. Marine Corps motto, Semper Fi, with a slur against gay men.

2. Please write 2-3 sentences  as a response on two following discussions:

1. This video left me speechless, can’t believe how brainwashed these people are. I am obviously against their message, but unfortunately, I do believe they have the right to spread their dirt. They are practicing their “freedom of speech” which allows them to express their opinion. If we silence these ignorant people, we will also silence all other minorities. This would prevent the LGBTQ community and other groups from getting their civil rights.

2.  This is disgusting. I am baffled that these people think this is ok. They are disrespecting the deceased, and the deceased friends and family. I understand that the funeral was public but still, where is their sympathy or their morals. They claim to be spreading the word of God but it looks like they’re spreading hate. Hate speech, hateful conduct, bias behavior, etc. However, this is just my opinion. They have every right to exercise the first amendment. Freedom of speech. Free expression. They aren’t breaking any laws but in my opinion, this is just shameful.

Telling people that it’s too late to pray and they are going to hell. How is that ok?! The poor children are being raised into bigotry, homophobia, discrimination, & propensity. Shameful behavior. To protest at someone’s funeral, kicking the same flag that these people bury their loved ones with. I hope they win the law suit. Once again, my opinion.

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Research of the United States and to comprehend the history and politics. university essay help: university essay help

Student Presentation   Objective  This is an opportunity for students to research a policy problem in the United States and to comprehend the history and politics surrounding the controversy under investigation. Students are expected to synthesize information, to explain complex political phenomenon, and to communicate suggested solutions.  Skill Development  Analyze, Evaluate, Create  Technology  PowerPoint and video software  Instructions  Please follow these steps to complete your presentation.

1. Pick a policy issue that is relevant in the American democracy. If you are having trouble choosing, chapters 15, 16, and 17 discuss various policies and their history in America. Some suggested topics are below. You can pick a different topic than suggested. You may want to pick a topic that relates to your career interests (nursing-healthcare, civil engineering-transportation infrastructure, etc.)

a. Education reform in the US over the last 5 years  b. Economic recession assistance (TARP, CARES Act, HEROs Act which hasn’t

passed yet)  c. Immigration reform and the DREAM Act  d. US involvement in organizations like the WHO, UN  e. Trump’s Trade Wars with China

2. Research the controversy. Remember that at the heart of politics is “who gets what, when, where, and how.”

a. Tell us what the focus of the policy/policy change is.  b. Frame why the change was or is needed according to the background research.  c. Identify who the main actors are and what they are hoping for (lobbyists,

politicians, social movements).  d. Summarize how the issue has been discussed in the media. Pick a few popular

press media outlets and identify how they are framing the issue.  e. Evaluate the perceived strengthens and weaknesses of the changes (whether

they have already happened or will happen).  f. Conclude by identifying whom the policy helps and whom may be left out from

receiving benefits  g. In your opinion, does the policy/policy change reflect the core values of the

democracy that we learned about in chapter one?  3. Make your PowerPoint slides and submit the draft of them as required by the syllabus.

a. Title Slide—Presentation Name, Your Name, Institutional Affiliation, Class Name and Number, Date

b. Question Slide—your question could be framed in different ways. Below are a few examples.

i. Why does the Trump Administration want to end the DREAM Act?  ii. What are the benefits and drawbacks of participating in an international

organization like the World health Organization?  iii. Why should we allow states to decide their education standards and

whether they want a common core?  c. Background Slide (s)  d. Media Coverage of the Issue  e. Targets/Winners of the Proposed Changes  f. Those unaffected or negatively affected by the proposed change.  g. Your Assessment of the desired or recent changes in the policy  h. Core Value(s) reflected in the change

4. Submit your slides for feedback. We want to make sure that your content is solid. We also want you to cite your sources. You can footnote them on the bottom of each slide or on your last slide can be a works cited slide. When you record the presentation, you do not need to read the footnote. We will be able to see that on the video.

5. Record your presentation. You can use whatever software you have available or have knowledge using. Students will need to save their video in Dropbox, Google Drive, YouTube channel, etc. so the professor and TA can view your work.

6. You will submit both the URL to the recorded presentation and the final draft of the PowerPoints.

Helpful Hints  If you have watched the Frontline video, ‘Obama’s Deal” you should have a better understanding of how you can discuss a policy and see the frames that the media uses. You can also see who advocated for what and hopefully see who the winners were (insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, the uninsured) and who might be unaffected (currently insured) or who might be perceived as losers (medical doctors, those who pay higher premiums, those who wanted universal healthcare).  Your PPT slide deck should have a minimum of 8 slides. Please do not make them too text heavy. Please use images and charts as appropriate to your content. Please cite your sources

sources.  The length of your video should be somewhere between 5 and 7 minutes. If it is a little short (4 minutes) or a little long, please do not re-record the video. I can’t imagine that you can complete this assignment in less than four minutes…

Grading Rubric

Student Presentation   Objective  This is an opportunity for students to research a policy problem in the United States and to comprehend the history and politics surrounding the controversy under investigation. Students are expected to synthesize information, to explain complex political phenomenon, and to communicate suggested solutions.  Skill Development  Analyze, Evaluate, Create  Technology  PowerPoint and video software  Instructions  Please follow these steps to complete your presentation.

1. Pick a policy issue that is relevant in the American democracy. If you are having trouble choosing, chapters 15, 16, and 17 discuss various policies and their history in America. Some suggested topics are below. You can pick a different topic than suggested. You may want to pick a topic that relates to your career interests (nursing-healthcare, civil engineering-transportation infrastructure, etc.)

a. Education reform in the US over the last 5 years  b. Economic recession assistance (TARP, CARES Act, HEROs Act which hasn’t

passed yet)  c. Immigration reform and the DREAM Act  d. US involvement in organizations like the WHO, UN  e. Trump’s Trade Wars with China

2. Research the controversy. Remember that at the heart of politics is “who gets what, when, where, and how.”

a. Tell us what the focus of the policy/policy change is.  b. Frame why the change was or is needed according to the background research.  c. Identify who the main actors are and what they are hoping for (lobbyists,

politicians, social movements).  d. Summarize how the issue has been discussed in the media. Pick a few popular

press media outlets and identify how they are framing the issue.  e. Evaluate the perceived strengthens and weaknesses of the changes (whether

they have already happened or will happen).  f. Conclude by identifying whom the policy helps and whom may be left out from

receiving benefits  g. In your opinion, does the policy/policy change reflect the core values of the

democracy that we learned about in chapter one?  3. Make your PowerPoint slides and submit the draft of them as required by the syllabus.

a. Title Slide—Presentation Name, Your Name, Institutional Affiliation, Class Name and Number, Date

b. Question Slide—your question could be framed in different ways. Below are a few examples.

i. Why does the Trump Administration want to end the DREAM Act?  ii. What are the benefits and drawbacks of participating in an international

organization like the World health Organization?  iii. Why should we allow states to decide their education standards and

whether they want a common core?  c. Background Slide (s)  d. Media Coverage of the Issue  e. Targets/Winners of the Proposed Changes  f. Those unaffected or negatively affected by the proposed change.  g. Your Assessment of the desired or recent changes in the policy  h. Core Value(s) reflected in the change

4. Submit your slides for feedback. We want to make sure that your content is solid. We also want you to cite your sources. You can footnote them on the bottom of each slide or on your last slide can be a works cited slide. When you record the presentation, you do not need to read the footnote. We will be able to see that on the video.

5. Record your presentation. You can use whatever software you have available or have knowledge using. Students will need to save their video in Dropbox, Google Drive, YouTube channel, etc. so the professor and TA can view your work.

6. You will submit both the URL to the recorded presentation and the final draft of the PowerPoints.

Helpful Hints  If you have watched the Frontline video, ‘Obama’s Deal” you should have a better understanding of how you can discuss a policy and see the frames that the media uses. You can also see who advocated for what and hopefully see who the winners were (insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, the uninsured) and who might be unaffected (currently insured) or who might be perceived as losers (medical doctors, those who pay higher premiums, those who wanted universal healthcare).  Your PPT slide deck should have a minimum of 8 slides. Please do not make them too text heavy. Please use images and charts as appropriate to your content. Please cite your sources

sources.  The length of your video should be somewhere between 5 and 7 minutes. If it is a little short (4 minutes) or a little long, please do not re-record the video. I can’t imagine that you can complete this assignment in less than four minutes…

Grading Rubric

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Our essay writers are graduates with diplomas, bachelor, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college diploma. When assigning your order, we match the paper subject with the area of specialization of the writer.

Why choose our academic writing service?

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Effectiveness of the Death Penalty essay help for free

SECTION One

[Section One provides an overview of the study, including the statement of the problem, a rationale for the study, research question(s), a discussion of the research design, and limitations that could impact the research results. Add an Introduction here. There is no heading used for the Introduction in the manuscript. The introduction to Section One tells the reader what the final paper is to be about, how the whole paper will be organized, and, in particular, how Section 1 will be organized. According to APA sixth edition, this section should not have a heading.]

Topic Overview/Background

[Every dissertation begins somewhere. Students are expected to pursue research that reflects the emphasis of their program, their concentration within the program, and their personal interests. This section provides an opportunity for the student to share a bit about their particular interest in pursuing this study and the background that will provide the reader with some context for what follows. Do not use first person. You should include citations to the most relevant references that support the topic you will be studying.]

Problem or Opportunity Statement

[All research should be aimed at addressing a gap in the body of knowledge, as observed in the literature that surrounds the topic of choice. Once this is identified, the researcher translates it into a discussion inserted here so that the reader is clear about the direction of the research. Not only does research address gaps in the body of knowledge, it often seeks to contribute to practical knowledge that can be applied in the field. Provide citations that support your topic.]

Purpose Statement

[Following on from the problem or opportunity discussion, the purpose statement explains why the research is being pursued. It serves as a beacon for both the researcher and the reader, stating the focus of the research and rationale for its pursuit. Provide sufficient citations from relevant reference sources to justify the topic of study.]

Research Question(s)

Is the death penalty as an effective method of punishment to deter future crimes in the United States? [As a result of the explorations detailed in the sections above, the researcher must shape his or her research intention into the form of one or more concise questions. The research question explicitly illuminates the variables (also referred to as concepts or categories in qualitative research) that will be under study. Near the conclusion of the research, final discussions highlight the specifics of, and the extent to which, the research question or questions were addressed. At times a central question is posed and followed by several sub questions.]

Hypotheses (Quantitative)/Propositions (Qualitative)

[Hypotheses are assumptions about a phenomenon that the research will seek to prove or disprove. Hypotheses are stated in two forms: the null hypothesis and the alternate hypothesis. The null hypothesis is proved or disproved by the research. If the null hypothesis were disproved, there would be no relationship between the variables being examined. The alternate hypothesis is examined when there is a relationship between the variables. Hypothesis testing is commonly found in research, typically accompanying quantitative research. Propositions are similar to hypotheses; however, when a proposition is stated, the relationship between the variables will not be proved or disproved by experiment within the context of the research proposed. Propositions help direct the focus of research such that ultimately testable hypotheses can be developed. Propositions typically accompany qualitative research.]

Theoretical Perspectives/Conceptual Framework

[The theoretical framework presents the logic you have developed, supported by the literature that informs the development of your research design. The theoretical perspectives assist the reader in understanding and following the design of your study. Frameworks and theoretical perspectives or models are most often found in foundational research related to your topic of study.]

Assumptions/Biases

[All research is accompanied by assumptions held by the researcher. It is extremely important to explore and state these assumptions as they are related to your study. The assumptions may arise from past experience or previous knowledge. The assumptions may also be based in existing theory.]

Significance of the Study

[In this section, the researcher explains how the study will benefit the stakeholders of the study. Stakeholders can be defined as persons or groups that may have a vested interest in the subjects explored in the study, as well as the research question itself. This section provides an explanation of the value your research will have on the body of knowledge related to your topic.]

Delimitations

The study of the deter of crimes is covered only by the United States of American. It covers the local, state, and federal laws enforced by law enforcement. It’s a study to determine if the death penalty is only used for people satisfaction.[Delimitations represent the boundaries of the study as determined by the researcher. Example, the study covered Savannah State University only. Give reason why it covered only Savannah State University]

Limitations

There is a limit to this study because some death penalty cases wasn’t reported in the 1900s and we will never have a true number of death penalty cases in America.[The limitations of the study are aspects of the research that cannot be controlled by the researcher. Limitations may be identified prior to the implementation of the research and/or may emerge during the process of doing the research.]

Definition of Terms

· “Capital murder” means murder for which death penalty may be imposed.

· “death-qualified jury” consists of jurors who are able to fairly consider both execution and life in prison, without strong predispositions towards either, as possible sentences for a guilty defendant.

· A “felony” is a crime usually punishable by imprisonment for more than one year or by death.

· Felony murder is when a death results from attempting to commit or during committing any felony.

· An “unadjudicated” offense is one in which the defendant has not been officially tried and convicted by a court of law.

· An “aggravating circumstance” refers to a fact or situation that increases the culpability for a criminal act.

General Overview of the Research Design

The death penalty in America used to practice on certain individuals. The federal level of the judiciary has limited the use of the death penalty. [Although the research design will be covered in depth in Section 3 of the paper, it is helpful to present a summary of the design in Section One so that the reader has a complete picture of the proposed research. Obviously, this summary cannot be introduced until Section 3 is completed.]

Summary of Section One

[As you conclude Section One, there should be a short summary of the contents of topics mentioned above. This serves as a transition into the next section.]

Organization of the Paper

This paper is organized based on American death penalty clause.[Concluding Section One requires a brief discussion telling the reader how the paper is organized, section-by-section. Each sentence or paragraph regarding a section should be short and succinct.]

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Selection Outline Initial Research instant essay help: instant essay help

7/8/2020 Topic Selection, Outline + Initial Research

https://canvas.pasadena.edu/courses/1105649/assignments/8422288?module_item_id=11966025 1/3

Topic Selection, Outline + Initial Research

截止 7月19日 由 23:59 编辑 得分 10 提交 外部工具

Overview

Creating academic papers often begin with an outline. For this assignment, you will use the research you have collected for your Final Assignment and create an outline of your information. An outline generally follows this type of format:

I. Main Idea

A. Supporting Idea

1. Research, data, facts

Many wordprocessing programs have outline formatting tools to help you. This Purdue OWL Sample Outlines PDF (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/pdf/20081113013048_544.pdf) gives examples of outline formats as well.

A reminder of resources to help you:

PCC Shatford Library POLSC 1 LibGuide (http://libguides.pasadena.edu/content.php?pid=271788&sid=2241328) ACLU Website (https://www.aclu.org/) (for overview of underserved communities and current news) SCOTUS blog (http://www.scotusblog.com/) (Supreme Court Blog) Oyez Cases (http://www.oyez.org/)

Directions 1. Choose your topic + Find 2-3 external sources for your final project

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/pdf/20081113013048_544.pdf
http://libguides.pasadena.edu/content.php?pid=271788&sid=2241328
https://www.aclu.org/
http://www.scotusblog.com/
http://www.oyez.org/

7/8/2020 Topic Selection, Outline + Initial Research

https://canvas.pasadena.edu/courses/1105649/assignments/8422288?module_item_id=11966025 2/3

2. Create an outline, making certain to note where you got your resources. The best kind of outline to use for a paper is the TOPIC SENTENCE OUTLINE (an example is on the Purdue OWL page link listed above).

How to Complete Your Assignment 1. Submit your work here in the CANVAS system as a Word 97-2003, .docx or other word processing file (Google Docs

(http://docs.google.com/) , Open Office (https://www.openoffice.org/) are also acceptable). If you are using iWorks, please convert to one of these files, as your instructor may not be able to view your document.)

Directions to Submit 1. On the right hand Menu, you will see a SUBMIT ASSIGNMENT button with a white plus sign. 2. Click on the SUBMIT ASSIGNMENT button. Then click BROWSE to look for your file on your computer.

When done, click the SUBMIT ASSIGNMENT button

http://docs.google.com/
https://www.openoffice.org/

7/8/2020 Topic Selection, Outline + Initial Research

https://canvas.pasadena.edu/courses/1105649/assignments/8422288?module_item_id=11966025 3/3

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Our essay writers are graduates with diplomas, bachelor, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college diploma. When assigning your order, we match the paper subject with the area of specialization of the writer.

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Assignment on Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment assignment help sydney

Instructions for assignment

Journal Assignment

Topic: Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment (JIPOE)

Assignment Instructions: Write a 400-500-word substantive journal entry describing the analytical view that is emphasized in the JIPOE to assess the adversary’s diplomatic, informational, military, and economic options.  Describe how you would utilize this information as a future SGM/CSM.  

Standard: Application includes:

1. Describe the role of intelligence at the joint force and operational level

2. Use the Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment (JIPOE) process during mission analysis.

The joint intelligence preparation of the operational environment (JIPOE) process is used to analyze all relevant aspects of this environment, including the adversary and other actors; the physical domains (air, land, maritime, and space); the information environment (which includes cyberspace); and political, military, economic, social, information, and infrastructure (PMESII) systems and subsystems. (pp. xi- xii, JP 2-01.3)

Define the Operational Environment Step 1,

Describe the Impact of the Operational Environment—Step 2,

Evaluate the Adversary and other Relevant Actors—Step 3,

Determine Adversary and other Relevant Actor Courses of Action—Step 4

Support to Joint Operation Planning, Execution, and Assessment Planning

Execution

Assessment

Special Considerations

Support to Domestic Operations

(Department of Defense, 2014, pp. xii- xviii)

Rubrics attached (if you cannot open, let me know and I will attach separately.)

Source for this assignment:

Read: 1. JP 2-01.3, JIPOE, 21 May 2014

JP 2-01.3 Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment (JIPOE)

https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp2-01-3.pdf (If link does not work, please copy and paste into browser)

Department of Defense. (2014, May 21). Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment (JP 2-01.3). Retrieved from https://jdeis.js.mil/jdeis/index.jsp?pindex=27&pubId=579

Note: Please use the source provided above (for in-text citations and reference page) for this assignment and another military source(s) related to the topic to complete the assignment.

RUBRICS_JOURNAL.p

df

Criteria Far Exceeds Standards Exceeds Standards Meets Standards Does Not Meet

Standards Unsatisfactory

20 18 14 10 0

Ideas, Arguments,

& Analysis

Ideas expressed in

discussion posts include

original thought,

substantial depth, and

are relevant to topic.

Viewpoint shows strong

logical thinking,

reasoning, and analysis

with evidence and

examples. Provided an

external resource

supporting student’s

discussion (as required

in the post instructions)

Ideas expressed in

discussion posts

are applicable and

relevant to topic;

some original

thought.

Demonstrates

reasonable

thinking, and/or

analysis with an

example.

Viewpoint is

supported with

evidence and/or

examples (as

required in the

post instructions)

Information

presents thoughtful

opinions that

connect to the ideas

analyzed. Presents

concepts with

minimal connections

to course content.

Ideas expressed in

discussion posts show a

minimal understanding of

the discussion topic.

Comments are general in

nature and/or

occasionally may not be

relevant. Repeats or

summarizes ideas with

limited analysis, original

thought, and/or

supported viewpoints.

No entry by

student or

submission turned

in late.

Connection to

Course Materials

Strong, direct

connections are made

to readings and/or other

course materials.

Content of lesson is

clearly articulated

through the use of

direct citing or

paraphrasing of the

module subject area

Some direct

connections are

made to readings

and/or other course

materials

(references, media,

resources, etc.) and

are clearly stated for

the most part.

Connected ideas to

course content;

however, a lack of

deep understanding

is evident.

Minimal direct

connections are made to

readings and/or other

course materials

(references, media,

resources, etc.).

Connections are largely

inferred and somewhat

unclear at times.

No entry by

student or

submission turned

in

late.(references,

media, resources,

etc.), and/or if

made, are not

clearly stated and

are largely

personal opinions.

Writing Quality Journal entry is well

written and clearly

articulated using

standard English,

characterized by

elements of a strong

writing style with

correct grammar,

punctuation, usage, and

spelling.

Journal entry shows

above average

writing style that is

clear using standard

English with minor

errors in grammar,

punctuation, usage,

and/or spelling.

Journal entry

displays average

writing quality with

more than one error

in grammar,

punctuation, and

spelling.

Journal entry shows an

average and/or casual

writing style using

standard English that is

generally clear but

contains some errors in

grammar, punctuation,

usage, and spelling.

No entry by

student or

submission turned

in late.

Plagerism and

Direct Quotes

No plagiarism or

excessive use of direct

quotes.

No plagiarism.

Journal Entry

consists of less than

10% use of direct

quotes.

No plagiarism.

Journal Entry

consistes of less

than 15% use of

direct quotes.

ANY plagiarism or more

than 25% of essay

consists of direct quotes

(word count).

No entry by

student or

submission turned

in late.

Assignment

Requirements

Met all assignment

requirements. (Word

count between 300-500)

Met all assignment

requirements. Word

count

Essay does not meet

more than one

requirement

identified in the

assignment

instructions.

Journal entry does not

meet the assignment

length requirement AND

was submitted after the

due date.

No entry by

student or

submission turned

in late.

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